Most Chinese have only a vague idea of who the Mongols are, but in fact the Mongol tribes form a complex system. The largest tribes are the Khalkha Mongols, the Oirats and the Buriats. The Torghuts, the main subject of this article, belong to the Oirat nation.

The Oirats are familiar to Chinese history buffs as the tribe who captured the Ming Emperor Ying-tsung in 1449, in what is known as the "T'u-mu debacle." "Oirat" actually means "federation," because this nation was composed of a federation of four Mongolian tribes: the Dzungarians, Torghuts, Khoshuts and Derbets.

Although allies, these tribes were constantly at odds with each other. By the late Ming period the Oirats had migrated to the Khotan region of Sinkiang. The Dzungarians, as the dominant tribe, often harassed the other three tribes, forcing them to seek a new life elsewhere. Thus the Khoshuts migrated to Tsinghai and became the forerunners of the modern Tsinghai Mongols, while the larger and more powerful Torghuts decided to migrate to the west.

In those days the wide Russian steppe was roamed only by powerless Cossacks and other minority peoples. The prospect of grazing these grasslands proved an irresistible temptation for the Torghuts, who from the late 16th century began exploring routes across the deserts and through the steppe. Eventually they penetrated to e northern Caspian Sea and the Astrakhan region on the lower reaches of the Volga.

This exploration was fruitful, and from about 1630 the Torghuts began a large-scale migration over the course of several years.

Although settled on the far side of the Russian steppe, far from their brethren in Sinkiang, these Mongols retained their own language and customs. As pious Tibetan Buddhists they also carried their altars and images with them for veneration on the long journey. They regarded the Dalai Lama as their supreme spiritual leader.

At this period the Russian government was still relatively weak and adopted a policy of conciliation towards the fiercely independent nomad tribes. Thus the Torghuts enjoyed in Russia a century and more of peaceful nomadic existence.

This situation changed in the mid 18th century with Russia's transformation under Peter the Great and Catherine the Great from a backward feudal empire into an absolute monarchy. Russia's first goal was to place the independent tribes and Khanates under the central authority of Moscow. The Torghut Khan was stripped of his power and made a local chief under the Tsar. Russian forces were stationed in the area, increasing the nomads' sense of being stabbed in the back.

On top of political incorporation into the Russian Empire, the Torghuts were also victims of religious intolerance. The Russian Orthodox Church wanted to build churches and expand its influence within the Torghut Khanate, which was quite unacceptable to these Mongols with their fervent Buddhist faith.

These factors contributed to the unprecedented oppression and despair now faced by the independence-loving Torghuts. Meanwhile in China the Ch'ing dynasty had subjugated the Dzungarians, removing the threat that had earlier forced them to migrate west. Once more the Torghuts looked longingly towards their fertile homeland in the east.

In late 1770, following secret talks between the Torghut nobles and the Imperial Lamas, the Torghuts resolved to migrate back to Dzungaria. Within ten days the tribes were summoned, their herds were rounded up and preparations for the move were made. Who could have foreseen the catastrophe that would befall them through this fateful decision?

On January 5, 1771--chosen by the Lamas as a lucky day--the 200,000 Torghuts were ready to depart. But, most unusually, the Volga had not frozen over. Those 70,000 tribesmen living west of the Volga could not cross the river to join their brethren. As the appointed hour drew near, Ubushi Khan made the bold decision to set off without delay for their distant homeland and to abandoned one quarter of his people.

The great caravan of young and old, with herds and flocks in tow, hastened into the broad plains of Khazakstan before any Russian forces could stop them. They fled their pursuers, but could not avoid the ambush and pillage that lay in store for them on the journey ahead!

Not only did the Torghuts have to cope with cruel harassment by nomad tribes, but they had to endure the cold, thirst and fearful sickness of the desert. Thousands of their elderly and young fell by the wayside, while the sick and injured slowed their progress further.

One Western historian has said it would be no exaggeration to describe the Torghuts as "meat on the chopping block." Laboring under every disadvantage, they could only submit to being trampled underfoot. Most piteously of all, the waterless Gobi desert almost finished them off and they were reduced to drinking their horses's blood and urine to survive!

This pitiful migration lasted for eight long months. By the time the Torghuts at last reached Ili in Sinkiang, within the borders of China, only a pitiful 80,000 remained out of the once proud tribe of 200,000, and these were almost too exhausted to support themselves.

To the Ch'ing dynasty these uninvited guests appeared highly suspect. Ubushi Khan had to plead for sanctuary and claim that they had journeyed back to China only as loyal subjects of the Ch'ing. The delighted Ch'ien-lung Emperor erected a stele commemorating the event and assigned the Torghuts to grazing lands in the foothills of the T'ien-shan Mountains. They were divided into six tribal leagues and placed firmly under Ch'ing authority. How sad that the Torghuts, who had hoped for independence and autonomy, should finally be compelled once again to submit to another power.

This story is not told yet, for do you remember the remnant of one quarter of the Torghuts left behind on the west bank of the Volga? They came to be known as the Kalmucks, or "the remnants," and continued to struggle for survival and freedom under difficult circumstances in Russia. Their story is just as heroic and no less tragic.

Traditional religious life is preserved even in adverse circumstances.

Dr. Stepa criticizes communism on German radio. At left is a former Russian premier from the Tsarist period.

Having bid farewell to their unsettled refugee life, the Kalmucks have now found a home of their own in the New World.

A visit to their refugee camp by the Paraguayan foreign minister lends heart to these arrivals from a foreign land.