China has had astronomical records from very early on. The scholar George Hale wrote: "The observation of sunspots by Chinese preceded that of the West by 2000 years, and moreover accurate and reliable records were kept continuously by successive generations." Solar and lunar eclipses, meteor showers, the explosion of supernovas, and even Halley's Comet can all be found in Chinese astronomical records.
Unlike the West, where the Christian doctrine that "The heavens created by God are perfect," Chinese astronomy was able to continue uninterrupted with strong political support. Early Chinese believed the heavens revealed portents of good or bad fortune, and the Emperor, called "The Son of Heaven," had to refer closely to the motions of the heavenly bodies in governing. Because of this successive generations all established agencies and officials for astronomical observation, whose results were reported to the throne and delivered to the historiographer.
Joseph Needham, author of Science and Civilization in China, points out that the Chinese also pioneered in astronomical coordinates, instruments, and an "open" view of the universe.
To observe the heavenly bodies requires a coordinate system for identifying locations. The early Greeks used the zodiac method, while the Arabs used longitude and latitude. Chinese developed the equatorial method, used in the Warring States era (4th century B.C.) work, Star Charts of the Scholar Shih. Accurate and convenient, the method is still used to today.
Chinese astronomers also became excellent designers of instruments, including the first armillary sphere. Powered by water, it automatically rotated to match the rotation of the earth. It reveals not only the high level of astronomy, but also superior machinery techniques, of early China. A brass armillary developed by Kuo Shou-ching in the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) simplified the earlier models and improved accuracy; it can be seen today at the Tse-chin Mountain observatory in Nanking.
Unhappily, because of politicization, there was no way to move further toward theoretical research to develop a systematic science.
For example, astronomers could calculate the lunar and solar eclipses as early as the Warring States period, but these "oddities" continued to be interpreted not scientifically, but as symbols that the Emperor lacked in moral propriety, that there was a need to cut back feasting and festing, or that prisoners be amnestied as a benevolent gesture to compensate for the emperor's failures.
"Given the influence of the thinking that 'man and the heavens each reflect the other,' Chinese astronomical observation could never escape superstition," explains Hwang Yi-nung, associate professor of History at Tsing Hwa University. When official astronomers witnessed an unusual celestial event, they would attach some forced political meaning to it, and rarely explored for the objective truth.
The connection between man and heaven can be seen in the names Chinese give to heavenly bodies. While some borrow names from myths or legends, many take the names of common items of daily life: "house," "wall," "rabbit trap". . . . Even more revealing are names reflecting status differences on earth: "emperor," "crown prince," "general." Moreover, their locations reflected their status: the "Emperor of heaven" star sat unmoving in the center, while "family" and "close advisors" bodies circled round it.
Examples abound from unofficial histories or popular tales, revealing the prevalence of the connection of the heavens to man's fate for the common man. In The Water Margin, for example, the 108 heroes are personifications of the 36 Tienkang and the 72 Tisha stars, dispatched to earth to do righteous deeds in a time of troubles and chaos.
Myths and anecdotes are fascinating, but they may have negative side effects. Daniel J. P. Chen of the Private Wen-shan Astronomical Observatory says, "Right up to now some people still confuse 'observing the stars' and 'reading the stars.'"
Li Tai-feng, associate director of the Earth Sciences Research Institute at the Academia Sinica, argues that while interest in the stars and astrology is high, real scientific knowledge about their positions, shapes, and times is lacking. Li says that although middle and primary school textbooks include astronomy, some teachers are inadequately trained, data is disorganized, and sometimes even pseudosciences like fortune telling are mixed into the astronomy curriculum.
"The development of astronomy in a country often lags behind economic development by 20 or 30 years," notes Li. With war, chaos, and the moving of the government to Taiwan, astronomy work was interrupted and developments have passed China by. However, the example of Japan, which was a focus of global attention for results on last year's supernova explosion (and which leads the world in the concentration of amateur astronomers), is encouraging.
Hwang Yi-nung says, "Our ancestors have left a rich heritage," which can be linked with the present. Hwang is a living example: he became interested in astronomy while studying physics at National Tsing Hwa University, and began studying astrophysics abroad. While researching supernovas he discovered the accomplishments recorded in Chinese histories. Since returning to the ROC he has begun putting together historical data, and has used computers to discover politically motivated "false phenomena."
The development of the scientific, experimental outlook in Europe and the discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton led to the West's overtaking of China in astronomy. Now, as we approach the 21st century, we can open the window all the way and extend our perspectives to encompass the boundless universe.
[Picture Caption]
The official in charge of astronomy for the Emperor Yao, Hsi Ho, used simple tools to work out the shadows of the sun, and established the lunar calender.
Space is rich in stars; does it make people think of finding its limit? The photo is of the North American Nebula. (photo by P. K. Chen)
A Western chart of the zodiac, done by the Polish astronomer Hevelius in 1645. (photo courtesy of Daniel J. P. Chen)
This ancient Chinese map of the stars was done in about 1700. (photo courtesy of Daniel J. P. Chen)
The armillary made by Kuo Shou-ching was made entirely of refined copper . (photo by Chen Chun-jung)
Education in mapping out astronomy can cultivate an earnest thirst for k nowledge and scientific spirit.
The Taipei City Astronomical Observatory's Planetarium often makes littl e visitors linger and forget to go home.
Space is rich in stars; does it make people think of finding its limit? The photo is of the North American Nebula. （photo by P. K. Chen）
This ancient Chinese map of the stars was done in about 1700. （photo courtesy of Daniel J. P. Chen）
A Western chart of the zodiac, done by the Polish astronomer Hevelius in 1645. （photo courtesy of Daniel J. P. Chen）
The armillary made by Kuo Shou-ching was made entirely of refined copper . （photo by Chen Chun-jung）
Education in mapping out astronomy can cultivate an earnest thirst for k nowledge and scientific spirit.
The Taipei City Astronomical Observatory's Planetarium often makes littl e visitors linger and forget to go home.
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