Many people know that the world's most translated book is the Bible, but few are aware that the number of different translations of the ancient Chinese classic Laozi puts it in second place. Late last year, Nobel literature prize juror Goran Malmqvist came to Taiwan to give a series of lectures; this internationally known sinologist went into sinology in the first place because in his youth he was deeply attracted by Laozi. In Germany, it is said, thanks in part to the back-to-nature movement, almost every intellectual has a copy of Laozi. The great Indian spiritual teacher Osho, who has become very well known in Taiwan in recent times, has also published an annotated edition of the work. Laozi, seen by most Chinese as advocating "passive inaction," is evidently very "active" in its appeal to people of other cultures.

"Today's exam system produces people who only know how to pass exams. The ones who are no good at exams go into the dummies' class, and those who fail are filled with a sense of inferiority; by that time, it's too late to save them." Under soft yellow lamplight in a simple but elegant teahouse, a circle of listeners attentively watch the speaker in the middle. In an unhurried voice he continues, saying that the excessive consumption created by materialism and the many unnecessary luxuries created by commercialism are all in the end only good for the rubbish heap. . . .

On a whiteboard on the wall, we see the words: "The wise are always good at caring for people, so that none is abandoned; always good at caring for things, so that nothing is thrown away. . . ." This aphoristic couplet, although written in classical Chinese, is not hard to understand, and with the practical illustrations just given by the speaker, no wonder the listeners are all nodding vigorously.

"My life is not my own／When can I forget these toils?" asked the great poet Su Dongpo. But a doze on the grass releases mind and body from the many bonds of life--at least for a while. （photo by Pu Hua-chih）

After work on a winter's evening, amid rain driven by a northeast monsoon wind, a group of students, mainly white-collar workers, come to their weekly "Laozi" class at a private academy in eastern Taipei City. Thirty-odd people gradually take their accustomed places, and a little later the classroom, in which there hangs the faint scent of orchids, begins to resound with the clear and joyful voice of National Institute of the Arts professor Hsin Yi-yun. Blowing away modern-day blues

Compared with practical subjects, there are few classes available on the traditional Chinese classics. But in some private academies, major lecture halls and other community educational establishments, the book Laozi (named for its writer, Laozi) is a major focus of study. Professor Lin An-wu of National Tsinghua University, who for more than a decade has been teaching courses on Laozi in both Taiwanese and Mandarin Chinese at private foundations and Daoist temples, says that public interest in Laozi's philosophy is very great indeed, and there are always people teaching it.

Of the extramural lectures and courses given by Professor Wang Pang-hsiung of National Central University's Graduate Institute of Chinese Literature over recent years, the largest number have been about Laozi. After three books of his on Laozi, based on the courses he taught at the New Aspect Art and Culture Center, ran to six printings in one year, he was jokingly accused of trying to "corner the Laozi market."

"Laozi can sweep away modern-day blues," says Wang Pang-hsiung, who regards Laozi as his "benefactor"-the Daoist philosophy of which Laozi is the main representative cleared away the unhappiness in his life. Seeing the stress and pressure of a highly industrialized and commercialized society, and how people's frustration and depression are often transmitted to others-so that parents affect their children, teachers affect their students, and throughout society there is no breathing space-he realized that "Laozi's ideas can release one from self-importance, allowing one to liberate oneself and others." He says this is why he teaches Laozi. He did not make any great decision to evangelize Laozi's philosophy, but his lectures usually attract audiences big enough to fill large lecture halls, and many people tell him they have come to appreciate how Laozi can bring a little liberation and release to the human spirit.

The vastness of nature gives humans infinite food for thought. Daoists stress returning to nature and "going with the flow." In Chinese landscape paintings, such as Chun Jing You Xing （"A Spring Stroll"） by Ma Yuan of the Southern Song dynasty, the figure in the painting roams among woods and springs, communing with the mountains and rivers, taking pleasure in life itself. （courtesy of the National Palace Museum）

"When I gave public lectures on the Confucian classics, my sense of mission was often too much for audiences. But later when I began to lecture on Laozi and Zhuangzi, I relaxed more, and audiences responded more enthusiastically too," says Wang Pang-hsiung.Via longa, vita brevis

Just what does Laozi's philosophy say? Is it enough to release one from the woes of the modern world?

The entire book Laozi, (often spelt Lao Tzu), also known as Dao De Jing (often spelt Tao Te Ching-"The Classic of the Way and its Power"), runs to only something over 5000 Chinese characters. The editions current today are divided into 81 chapters, so each chapter is short. Unlike other ancient texts such as Mencius, Confucius's Analects, or Zhuangzi-which contains over 180 allegorical stories-Laozi is written in an "aphoristic" style. In the children's classics-reading classes which have recently become popular, Laozi is almost always the book which the children learn by heart most quickly and recite most smoothly.

But although Laozi is pithy and concise, since ancient times it has been ranked, with the Yi Jing (The Book of Changes) and Zhuangzi, as one of the three most abstruse classics. If we look at the first chapter of Laozi, it begins: "The way which can be stated is not the eternal Way. The name which can be named is not the eternal Name. Nonbeing is the beginning of heaven and earth; being is the mother of all things. . . ."-the ideas are "out of reach" from the start. And although the book's 5000 characters are in short sentences, the words are abstract, and terms describing the natural substance of the Way, such as Way, emptiness, breath, being and nonbeing, also tend to create mental distance.

But this is also what makes Laozi Laozi-what sets him apart from all the other pre-Qin-dynasty philosophers. In particular, Laozi's "Way" (dao) and "power" (de) have their own special meaning, different from the Confucian concept of "virtue" (daode).

Many people will still remember vividly the Daoist priest in the film A Chinese Ghost Story of a few years ago, whirling his sword and singing at the top of his voice: "The Way, the Way, the Way, Heaven's Way, Earth's Way, bullshit all the way." It is precisely because of his Way-the dao-that Laozi is venerated by Daoists as their founding teacher. But is the Way really so incomprehensible?

Over more than two millennia, a great body of commentary on Laozi has been accumulated, and every commentator has his or her own view of what is meant by the "Way." But looking at the book overall, the Way is Laozi's observation of the regular laws and characteristics of the activities of all things in nature, held up as a mirror against society and human affairs in order to gain a basic insight into human character.

For instance, with the weather, it is usually the case that "a gale will not blow all morning, a downpour will not continue all day." If even the wind and the rain, which are made by heaven and earth, cannot persist, then what of human efforts? Laozi hopes people will take warning from this.

Again: "The greatest good is like water, which benefits all things without contention. . . ." Laozi describes water as nourishing all living things without complaint; if humans could only learn water's virtue, they would not be far from finding the Way.

Laozi believed that all things spring from the "Way," but also that the Way is present within all things. When the Way is expressed in human life and fulfills its role, it is "power" or "virtue" (de).

In the modern urban environment with its constant pursuit of material prosperity and its ubiquitous stress, reading Laozi is as refreshing as a cooling balm in the heat of summer, and can help one remain calm in a turbulent world. （photo by Diago Chiu）

Put simply, Laozi uses the Way of nature to understand the ways of man-to critically examine people, events and things from a natural perspective. Cultural critic Lin Ku-fang has said that traditional Han Chinese culture lacks its own system of deities in the strict religious sense which could be used as a frame of reference against which to measure real life. But there is a pervasive tendency to make comparisons with the waxings and wanings in the cycle of nature. Lamenting the disparity between the eternal character of the Way and the fleetingness of human existence is a basic feature of Daoist life.Illuminating the affairs of men

As well as complementing Confucian philosophy, which concentrated on constructing an ethical framework for human relations, and had relatively little to say about the natural universe, Laozi's discourse on the Way also created the distinctive spiritual element in Chinese art.

Aesthetics professor Chiang Hsun points out that the words, "Nonbeing is the beginning of heaven and earth; being is the mother of all things" in the first chapter of Laozi go beyond the scope of real-world human experience to directly probe the mysteries of how the universe came into being. Laozi says of the Way: "There was something composed of many things, before heaven and earth were born." The Way existed before the material world, and seems to move in a never-ending cycle characterized by "departing, becoming distant and returning." It is an invisible and unceasing motive force within the universe, and the real creator and mover of all visible, physical things.

"A realization of the infinity of time and space began to take shape in the Spring and Autumn [770-476 BC] and Warring States [475-221 BC] periods." In his book Reflections on Beauty, Chiang Hsun writes that Laozi's use of departure, distance and return to describe unfathomable time and space entered deeply into the Chinese psyche, and from then on was promoted as the highest ideal of art and literature. In the long handscroll paintings of the Northern Song dynasty, the use of space and unpainted areas in landscapes, and even the rolling and unrolling of the scrolls themselves, is nothing other than the concrete expression in the Chinese visual arts of Laozi's "departure, distance, and return."

Laozi's ideas prompted the Chinese to ponder the universe, time and space, but Professor Chen Ku-ying of National Taiwan University's philosophy department, who has led the upsurge in research into Daoism in Taiwan in recent years, says the most splendid part of Laozi is still his philosophy of life. If we understand the real motives which shaped Laozi's thought, we realize that his philosophy was the extension of a theory of the universe into theories of human life and politics.

Chen notes that what Laozi represents is the holistic Chinese mode of thinking embracing heaven, earth and man. For the Chinese there was no schism between metaphysics and the experiential world, and in fact the concepts of nonbeing, darkness and emptiness, with which Laozi described the essential nature of the Way, actually closely fit human life. "His metaphysics were conceived in response to the needs of human life and politics."A hundred schools of thought

Laozi and Confucius both emerged late in the Spring and Autumn period, in a time of frequent warfare when the system of moral education through ritual and music of the Zhou dynasty (11th century-256 BC) had collapsed, and the nobility had abandoned themselves to a life of wanton extravagance supported by ruthless exploitation of the common people. The leading thinkers of the day each proposed their own solutions. The Confucianists called on people to participate actively in the world's affairs by extending the existing family ethics of filial piety and fraternal duty-respect and obedience to one's parents and elder brothers-to apply to the monarch and his ministers and officials. Hence the Great Sage Confucius has been regarded as advocating "reform within the existing system."

Wang Pang-hsiung says that if the language of the Confucianists is that of positive exhortation, the language of Laozi is that of negative warning.

The Confucianists tell people directly that life is thus and thus, and that a man of noble character is magnanimous and cultivates in all things the four fundamental principles of Confucianism-humanity, duty, propriety and wisdom. Laozi is also in favor of humanity and duty, but never advocates them positively. Instead he raises doubts: if people are possessed of the four basic virtues of humanity, duty, propriety and wisdom, why do these qualities appear nowhere in all we see around us? He feels that humans have so many sensory desires and ingrained prejudices that our hearts and minds are fettered, and humanity, duty, propriety and wisdom are suppressed. If at this point one advocates humanity and duty, they will only be debased and distorted.

In a hell-for-leather, success- and profit-oriented age similar to our own, Laozi saw deceit and treachery all around, and human nature twisted. Attempts to bring about moral improvement by positive exhortation, however well-meaning, usually failed to have the desired effect. Hence Laozi wanted people to return to their natural state, to be "completely empty, perfectly serene." He believed that just like the Way of nature, every person, matter or thing had the power of its own inner spontaneity, and only if that spontaneity was respected was there the possibility of development towards the good.

For instance, one of the most familiar phrases from Laozi is: "Heaven and earth are not humane; all things are to them as straw dogs." The Way of heaven and earth favors nothing and no-one: just as the straw dogs used in religious ritual are burnt when they are finished with, the dao allows all things in nature to regulate themselves and each other, and they all live and grow and have their being. But in human society, humanity and love, being full of subjective likes, dislikes and purposes, are usually biased. Hence when people in political power act arbitrarily or recklessly, it is sure to lead to their failure and downfall; one must give up all attempts at external coercion and domination, and learn to let things purely take their own natural course, so that the individuality and distinctiveness of life can develop to the full.Manifest relativity

Life is an unavoidable responsibility, and Chinese philosophy has always tended to focus on human life and politics. Laozi too was concerned with the practical issues of a turbulent age. Therefore although he frequently describes the inexpressible but nevertheless existent Way, as early as his second chapter he connects it with the experiential world. "When everyone knows what makes beauty beautiful, they also know what is ugly. When everyone knows what makes goodness good, they also know what is evil. For being and nonbeing give rise to each other, difficulty and ease complete each other, long and short reveal each other. . . ." This too displays Laozi's characteristic way of thinking: everything in the manifest world comes in relative and complementary pairs, and human value judgements are mostly born of relativity.

"If we praise Xi Shi [a legendary beauty], it is to the detriment of Dong Shi [Xi Shi's less beautiful neighbor, ridiculed for her attempts to imitate Xi Shi's expressions of anguish]," says Wang Pang-hsiung, drawing an amusing analogy. The positive in human life often brings out its negative opposite. Laozi recognized the relative nature of choices as to what values to accept. When such a choice is made, it will also give rise to its opposite. Therefore one must closely examine values, language, matters and things.

Why advocate "spiritual reform" (as President Lee Teng-hui recently did)? Is it not because selfishness is rife and morality in decline? That is why Laozi says: Everyone speaks of humanity and duty precisely because the path of righteousness has been abandoned; it is only when intellectual skills develop that deceit and trickery come into being; when people make a point of upholding filial piety and compassion, one can be sure that families are plagued by discord; and it is when a country is in disarray that it has the greatest need of loyal officials! Laozi's purpose was to get people to stand back and consider what kind of behavior would genuinely maintain humanity, duty, filial piety and compassion.The bigger picture

Ma Shu-li, who teaches weekly courses on Laozi and the Yi Jing at the Tsuhui Foundation, says that one special characteristic of Laozi's thinking is his farsighted and penetrating vision. He puts such things as knowledge and learning at arm's length, to see the issues behind them. Ma vividly describes Laozi's way of taking a macroscopic view: suppose a gang of workers are spread out on scaffolding, constructing a gigantic sculpted dragon. Each of them sees the dragon very clearly at close quarters, and carves with tremendous precision. But then someone steps back 300 paces from the dragon, and sees that the whole thing is out of kilter.

"What is special and different about Laozi is that he extends the scope of human thinking from human life to the universe. When considering all kinds of questions of human life, he starts from a macroscopic view, yet he is also capable of examining issues in detail and from many different angles," says Chen Ku-ying. In his view, the reason Laozi still strikes a chord among modern readers is that "people have an urge for the metaphysical"-a need to probe and seek out the fundamental roots and origins of life. Apart from Laozi and Zhuangzi, the great pre-Qin philosophers mostly discussed principles of government, and considered issues from a standpoint within the perceived world. But Laozi discusses a deeper level of thinking, and more fundamental issues.

However, the way in which Laozi breaks free from the intellectual constraints of the pre-Qin philosophers is also the aspect of his thinking which is most easily misunderstood.Contented Confucians, disgruntled Daoists?

Since the ROC Ministry of Education introduced the requirement that high school teachers must undergo 18 hours of formal study per semester, Professor Fu Wu-kuang of the Chinese department at National Taiwan Normal University has frequently been giving talks on Laozi's philosophy to senior high school teachers. Once after he gave a lecture on "Laozi's Ideal of the State" at Hsinchu High School, a mathematics teacher stood up to say he had never liked Laozi's and Zhuangzi's philosophy, with their advocacy of passivity and inaction. As we go into the 21st century, he argued, only competition can bring out people's potential, and passivity and inaction cannot help people establish themselves and hold their own in this society.

In Taiwan, people do not get the opportunity to study Laozi in the course of their conventional education. Schools' "Basic Chinese Culture Syllabus" prescribes only Confucius's Analects, along with Mencius. This is one reason why such ancient stereotypes as "when things go a man's way he will be a Confucianist, when things go against him he will call himself a Daoist" are deeply rooted.

According to Records of the Grand Historian, the son of the Duke of Zhou (c. 11th century BC) was enfeoffed as prince of the state of Lu (part of modern Shandong Province), so that Zhou ritual was brought to Lu. Confucius was a native of Lu, and Mencius of neighboring Zou; hence both were heirs to Zhou culture, and attached great importance to the ethics of human relationships. But Laozi came from the southern state of Chu, and had not grown up with the strictures of Zhou ritual. In the south the study of ethics was not widespread, and people were more liberated in their thinking, and given to deep and abstruse trains of thought. Furthermore Laozi did not make positive affirmations, but spoke of non-action, non-contention, emptiness and nonbeing. Most people, taking his words too literally, are apt to misinterpret them.

People have also gained an impression of Laozi as a two-faced, contradictory character, who on the one hand advocates passive inaction, yet on the other analyzes politics and war. For instance there is the passage: "A wise ruler empties the people's minds, fills their bellies, softens their will and strengthens their bodies. He keeps them without knowledge or desires, so that cunning men to fear to act." Taken out of context by the Legalists, this was interpreted as a specific strategy of government, and Laozi's 5000-character text was accused of being a "tool of the ruling classes."The dangers of sensual abandon

"Terms in Laozi such as 'empty,' 'soft,' 'still,' 'little' and 'retreat' are not negative in their meaning," Chen Ku-ying tells his classes, seeking to "set the record straight."

Han dynasty commentators equated Laozi's ideas with the notion, attributed to the semi-mythical ancient Yellow Emperor, of "governing by non-action," and developed a political philosophy whereby "the monarch above does not act, the ministers and officials act." But Laozi's philosophy is not about career and success: when Laozi spoke of non-action it was after having personally seen too much "reckless action" by the ruling class of his time in the form of harassment of the people, tyrannical rule and the like. This is why he said: "The Way is always non-acting, yet there is nothing it does not do"-human rulers should, like the dao, be guided by their own nature, and not act arbitrarily or recklessly.

Chen Ku-ying observes that most people stress what is present ("being") and not what is absent ("nonbeing"), and stress the "full" rather than the "empty," because the usefulness of the absent and the empty is less easily demonstrated. But Laozi pointed out the value and creativity of the absent and the empty. For instance, only where there is emptiness is there space to put things.

For how this applies to the manifest world, we can refer to Chapter 12: "The five colors blind the eyes; the five notes deafen the ears, the five flavors dull the palate. . . ." In Chiang Hsun's words: "Laozi deeply probes both sensory perception and states of mind." By way of example, Chiang cites the "white space" deliberately left in Chinese traditional landscape paintings: art is a sensory activity, but unmoderated sensual indulgence numbs the senses. Hence the goal of Chinese art is not sensory stimulation for its own sake, but rather to use the minimum possible sensory stimulation to induce a more sublime state of mind and uplift the spirit. "The white space is not nothingness, but greater potential," says Chiang.Freeing the creative urges

If Laozi were alive today, would he necessarily condemn competition and progress? Sima Qian, the Grand Historian of the Han dynasty, lumps Laozi and Zhuangzi together, but in fact they are very different in both their concerns and their style, even though Zhuangzi was influenced by Laozi. Zhuangzi basically felt that the rulers could not be instructed, and sought individual release and self-transformation. But Laozi said: "Withdraw once you have achieved success." Fu Wu-kuang says that evidently Laozi did not oppose people pursuing a successful career, but simply wanted them to continually ask themselves: is spending all day in the rough and tumble of politics or business, beset with vexations because of your ambition, what you yourself really want? Is this kind of satisfaction and happiness real?

In his book A Modern Commentary and Translation of Laozi, Chen Ku-ying writes that what Laozi saw before him in society was people pursuing fame, fortune and status, everyone trying to make a name for themselves, taking advantage of others and greedily pursuing profit. Hence he told people that once they had achieved success it was not necessary to keep it for themselves ("the Way accomplishes but claims no credit"). When they had achieved what they had set out to do, there was no need to strive for fame and position ("the Way of the wise is to act without striving"). He called on everyone who had more than they needed to help those in need ("the Way of nature is to take where there is excess and give where there is lack"), and exhorted people to make the greatest contribution they could to humankind ("Who can take from their own plenty and give to all? Only those who have the Way").

In human life, which is full of setbacks, perhaps Zhuangzi provides the best spiritual support; but Laozi reminds us: the higher your status, the less you should allow yourself to become dizzy with success. In fact he is very positive about life.

Laozi says: "The wise. . . bear and nurture but do not own, act but do not lay claim, work but do not vaunt their achievements." Chen Ku-ying, who is versed in both Chinese and Western philosophy, says that humans are apt to be "possessive," and the British philosopher Bertrand Russell had high praise for Laozi's philosophy of "giving rein to one's creative urges and extinguishing one's possessive urges."Cultivating the inner life

In response to modern-day conditions, Laozi's concept of "little" is a "gift" which teachers are even more eager to transmit to their students. When Techien Academy owner Wang Chen-hua gives classes on Laozi, he starts his outline with these words from Chapter 22: "[Those who] take little gain much; [those who] take much gain confusion."

As for "Good people do not have much; those who have much are not good," Wang believes Laozi is right on the button with this. "If your intentions toward someone are good, you will not scare them off with a display of 'excess,'" he says. Wang gives his class an example from real life: Today people see abundance and prosperity as positive values, but everyone is so busy they don't know how to slow down. Their senses are subject to constant fatigue and bombardment, and inner simplicity and clarity are out of reach. But in fact such "plenty" is incomparably monotonous, so that people grow weary of it and wish for escape. "Life could be simple yet rich, but human psychology makes it complex yet monotonous. Laozi saw through this phenomenon more clearly than anyone, and when he spoke of 'little,' he was telling people to grasp the richness of life."

Any philosophy may be converted into practical knowledge, and even in ancient times Laozi influenced the Legalists, the Military Strategists and the Political Strategists, seemingly showing his pioneering role in the development of Chinese leadership and governmental techniques in the Warring States period. But Wang Chen-hua says one should not read Laozi with a view to immediate practical gain. He quotes: "To know others takes intelligence, to know oneself takes wisdom; to defeat others takes strength, to master oneself takes greatness." Says Wang: "Even if a person can govern ten million people, the question whether they can govern themself is still relevant. Laozi hit the nail on the head when he said this."

If we read Laozi attentively, the idea that its main purpose is to teach "the art of kings," and the importance of such phrases as "to advance is to retreat," pale into insignificance beside Laozi's intention that everyone should return to the original source of life. The saying goes that those who involve themselves in human affairs are Confucianists, while those who renounce the world are Daoists. But in Chen Ku-ying's view, "Those who involve themselves in society have an even greater need for Laozi's ideas."

"Laozi sincerely called on people to pay attention to cultivating their own inner life, and on this level, as regards the shallow lifestyle and psychology of today, Laozi's call may not be lacking in deep meaning," says Professor Chen. A Confucianist's view of Laozi

"Since the rise of Confucianism, the ability to distinguish good and bad in human life has been seen as uplifting, yet it is also a burden. But if we stop worrying so much about that distinction, and do not insist on being uplifted, then we can put down that heavy burden. Perhaps this is the psychological journey of a Confucianist disciple interpreting Laozi!" Wang Pang-hsiung explains his own state of mind: Laozi released him from his inflated sense of mission, and when he then reread Confucius's Analects, he no longer felt a stirring sense of solemnity, nor the obligation to uphold the legacy of several thousand years of culture. Using the wisdom of the dao to take up the burden of Confucian ideals both lightened the load and for the first time gave him the strength to shoulder it.

"Daoism is an important resource for life to recuperate and regenerate; it gives deep consolation to the mind and the soul." Many teachers echo this sentiment: as well as allowing people to retain the truest part of their humanity in a chaotic world, Laozi's philosophy also helps one sort out many aspects of real life.

Approaching Laozi from the angle of abstract thought enriches one's thinking: "After reading Laozi in depth, I found I could discuss science, economics or literature with equal ease-not on a technical level, but returning to the source of life," says Ma Shu-li.

Moreover, reading Laozi's insights into human nature today does not in fact take very much effort. Human psychology and human nature are direct expressions of life, so there is no distinction between more or less "advanced" times or peoples. Affection for family and friends, mental anguish or ambition are not limited to any particular era.

For instance, Laozi tells us to ask ourselves, "Which is dearer to you, your reputation or your life? Which do you value more, you life or your wealth?" Do you want the real unfolding of human life? Or do your prefer the outward trappings of fame and titles? Even today, it is heady stuff.Liberating the classics

When Hsin Yi-yun, Wang Pang-hsiung, Ma Shu-li and other teachers speak about Laozi, whether working through the whole text from start to finish or simply discussing the main points, they always explain the content with reference to modern times, extending it from the individual lives of those present to social and political issues. With great mastery, they weave connections between Laozi's ideas and the world around us.

Speaking of Laozi's concept of opposites complementing each other, Hsing Yi-yun takes children's education as an example. If passing exams is pursued like desperate hand-to-hand combat, it is naturally at the expense of the fullness of life and living.

"Two-and-a-half thousand years ago Laozi realized that the narrowing of morality and learning would lead to problems." Having realized the meaning of "through learning you increase [the mass of your knowledge] day by day; but by following the Way you diminish [your sophistry] day by day," Ma Shu-li tells his students that today, with everything oriented towards technical development, understanding of life and the mind and soul has not advanced commensurately, so that when faced with social issues most people do not know how to approach them intellectually.

Extrapolating further, Ma says that overemphasis on knowledge and science means people lack the appropriate mental tools to help them understand their inner life. Thus, as material culture becomes more and more advanced and knowledge becomes more and more objective, we become more and more deficient in spiritual cultivation, and our moral character is more and more debased. For instance, physical exercise is no longer undertaken with the aim of moral cultivation, and today observation of the heavens is quite divorced from probing the mysteries of life. Thus, the more knowledge we amass, the greater may be the harm to society.

In Lin An-wu's view, reading Laozi today can bring Laozi's ideas into the enormous structure of modern discourse, to participate in the discussion of all kinds of issues in this world. As for what influence those ideas may have, Laozi himself never stressed influencing things on a grand scale. But if people have more spiritual and intellectual resources available to them, they will feel they have greater possibilities open to them, and will not undervalue their own life.

Says Wang Chen-hua: "Through Laozi we hope to go some way towards piercing human hypocrisy and overcoming the human tendency to overcomplicate things, so as to return to simplicity and genuineness, living naturally and happily, close to our inner conscience and humanity. This is Laozi's greatest service." Wang says it is not because praise from outsiders has boosted Laozi's standing and authority that he feels that every heir to Chinese culture should read Laozi.Awakening to life

Problems of societal adjustment have not appeared only in the 20th century, and they cannot all be resolved by the 2500-year-old Laozi; nor yet does Laozi provide a detailed blueprint for life.

The Chinese philosophy of life cannot be understood without real action or real and close experience of life. "If Western knowledge is the pursuit of truth, Chinese knowledge is the pursuit of enlightenment," says Hsin Yi-yun.

While the Chinese of the late 20th century are busy with the pursuit of wealth, in the West, in Germany alone there are 40 to 50 different translated editions of Laozi, and in the US the New York Times once chose Laozi as one of the greatest authors of all time," on a par with Shakespeare, Goethe and Tolstoy. The reasons behind this phenomenon can surely also only be discovered by returning to the basic nature of life.