This spring the National Palace Museum mounted a special exhibition of paintings of Lohans, with over 100 portraits on display. Some had an air of bookish refinement, some looked fierce; some seemed to be pondering a Sutra text, while others were chatting happily away. Their very variety was a revelation in itself. The perennial popularity of these Buddhist figures with artists down the centuries shows what a warm spot the Chinese have for Lohans.

Originally known as Arhats in Sanskrit, Lohans are second only to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in their spiritual state, having achieved the highest stage of fulfillment in Hinayana Buddhism. Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism are distinguished mainly by the scope of their spiritual aspirations, the former only seeking personal enlightenment while in the latter the practitioner helps others to become Buddhas before entering the blissful state of Nirvana. In other words Hinayana Buddhism is concerned with personal perfection, while Mahayana Buddhism is concerned with universal good. Still, the achievements of Lohans shouldn't be overlooked because of their more restricted scope, for to attain such a stage of fulfillment is far from easy.

In the Sutra of 42 Sections, Sakyamuni preached that men commit evil through personal emotions and the influence of their surroundings, and only attainment of the Lohan state enables man's heart to remain immaculate.

A sutra translated by the late Han period monk Chih-ch'ien states: "Lohans are pure men who cannot be sullied by sight or sound, nor swayed by glory or status; immovable as the earth, they experience no suffering and are at ease whether living or dead." Apart from the very last phrase, these words might almost apply to the sages of Confucianism and Taoism. Clearly the main feature differentiating the Buddhist saints is their freedom from birth and death, outside the cycle of existence. According to the Sutra of 42 Sections, Sakyamuni ascribed to those who attain the state of Lohan a supernatural power which enables them to hover eternally between heaven and earth, free from birth and death.

Since Lohans have entered Nirvana and are no longer subject to the cycle of existence, they are called the "Not Born." And because they have cut off all anxiety and doubt, they are also called Ksinasrava, "Conquerors of the Passions." These achievements of perfection make them worthy of veneration by humans and devas, so they are also known as the "Worthy of Worship."

Such purity and piety of spiritual perfection, such lofty attainments, meant that the title of Lohan came to be bestowed on distinguished monks. In due course even ordinary monks were called Lohans, and traces of the term remain today. In Shaolin martial arts, for example, one refers to Lohan fistwork and Lohan tactics. There is a tasty and inexpensive fried vegetarian dish that is known as Lohan fare, "because there are many Lohans, and a vegetarian miscellany consists of many types of food," says Wen Hsing-tsu, a vegetarian restaurateur of over ten years' standing.

Many of the early Chinese settlers in Taiwan lived solitary lives without families. Such people were dubbed "Lohan feet," a term which was later used to describe any rootless person or unmarried man.

Eternally hovering between heaven and earth, Lohans also became symbols of longevity. In olden times people would present paintings of Lohans as a birthday gift. On his birthday the Sung litterateur Su Che would venerate the portraits of 18 Lohans to ensure good fortune and long life. Later Lohans were always worshipped in temples, where they often appear along both sides of the altar, flanking the Buddha like old-fashioned yamen runners. Prayers are addressed by the faithful to the Kuan-yin or Sakyamuni serenely seated in the middle.

It is only in Mahayana Buddhism that the Lohans, already perfect in their own purity, show concern for the travails of the world of men.

Works such as the Sutra of Maitreya's Descent into the World and the Ekottaraagama Sutra record that before Sakyamuni entered Nirvana he enjoined the four great bhiksus Mahakasyapa, Pindola, Rahula and Kaundinya to dwell in the world, guard the Buddha Law, glorify it and bring all sentient beings to salvation.

These four great bhiksus had supernatural powers to extend their lives, so that they could dwell in the world to guard the Law and benefit living beings. In contrast to those who entered Nirvana after attaining fulfillment, they are regarded as the beginning of the Mahayana-ization of the Lohans.

According to the Sutra of the Dharma Abode translated by the T'ang monk Hsuantsang, if offerings are made to Lohans, they will enter each believer's home to receive them and bring blessings upon the faithful them selves.

Once Lohans began to bring salvation too, people naturally venerated them to ensure good fortune, as if "clasping the Buddha's knees."

How many Lohans are there? The Treatise on Entering Mahayana translated by Tao-t'ai in the fourth or fifth century claims that 9.9 billion Lohans preach the Buddha Law in the world. Even with today's population explosion, if everyone in the world achieved perfection as a Lohan that would only make 5 billion, but the number at least suggests their multiplicity. In China most people are familiar with the "18 Lohans."

The precise origins of these 18 are obscure, but the Sutra of the Dharma Abode gives a detailed account of 16 of them.

According to the sutra, when Sakyamuni was about to enter Nirvana he entrusted part of the Law to the 16 Great Lohans, for them to preserve and uphold it. Each of these Lohans had a name, place of abode, and his own disciples. The idea of 18 Lohans emerged in the late T'ang and Five Dynasties period, but opinions still differ as to the identities of the additional pair.

The Lohan cult flourished in the T'ang and Sung periods thanks to the influence of Hsuan-tsang's translation, and it was in response to this cult that painted portraits of Lohans appeared.

Several artists of the middle and late T'ang such as Kuan Hsiu and Chang Hsuan were celebrated for their portraits of Lohans, and excavations have recently brought to light accounts from the Five Dynasties period of Lohan images being made for parents, family and the owner himself for veneration and worship, so clearly the Lohan cult was popular at the time. But painters had other reasons for portraying Lohans too. Buddhist Sutras describe no physical features of Lohans, in contrast to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas with their well-defined clothing, facial appearance and physical proportions, so Lohan portraits offered unlimited freedom and became a major genre in Chinese figure painting.

According to National Palace Museum research assistant Li Yu-min, Chinese portraits of distinguished monks go back to the Six Dynasties period (third to sixth centuries), and T'ang painters naturally proceeded on the basis of that style of portraiture, tending to depict monks with their companions in a variety of moods, either expounding doctrine, being venerated, or preaching the faith. Four main types of portraiture can be distinguished.

The first type, the "worldly mien," is a colorful and finely executed class of portrait which depicts the Lohan like any ordinary monk in appearance, accompanied by servants or worshippers. The second type, which was created by Kuan Hsiu, is the "other-worldly mien." Kuan Hsiu was himself a bhiksu, and before painting a Lohan he would pray for one to appear to him in a dream, then paint what he saw. His Lohans are always Indians with deep-set eyes and prominent noses, and are accompanied only by old trees, mountains and rocks, never by worshippers.

Li Kung-lin was a master of the third type, the "line-drawing Lohan." A famous Sung painter of Taoist and Buddhist figures, his works are prized for the refined and scholarly air with which the figures are picked out cartoon-style in pure lineation.

The fourth type is Tibetan-style Lohan paintings, which are much like Chinese paintings except that the vessels and clothing conform to Tibetan Buddhist conventions.

Lohan portraits cover a range of expressions and never fail to appeal, especially since however forbidding their faces may be there is always a gleam of compassion in their eyes. No wonder these old monks are favorites with artists and ordinary people alike. Since popular belief has it that they can extend their lives through supernatural powers, they are invariably portrayed with long eyebrows and large ears.

The very human emotion and worldly coloring of Lohan portraits reflects the increasing secularization of Buddhist art from the middle and late T'ang period. The popularity of Lohan portraits shows that people liked variety of imagery and expression; no doubt few indeed could ever experience the serene felicity of Sakyamuni seated pokerfaced in meditation!

[Picture Caption]

The lale T'ang monk Kuan Hsiu, a famous painter, would pray for a dream before painting a Lohan and paint the portrait according to his dream. (photo courtesy of the National Palace Museum)

(Right) Buddhist Sutras do not record the facial features or physical characteristics of Lohans, so Lohan portraits could be handled with exceptional freedom and became a major theme in figure painting. (photo by Vincent Chang)

In Buddhism, Lohans know no birth or death and exist eternally between heaven and earth, bringing sentient beings to salvation. (photo by Vincent Chang)

The term Lohan is widely used as a term of address for monks. (photo by Arthur Cheng)

（Right） Buddhist Sutras do not record the facial features or physical characteristics of Lohans, so Lohan portraits could be handled with exceptional freedom and became a major theme in figure painting. （photo by Vincent Chang）

In Buddhism, Lohans know no birth or death and exist eternally between heaven and earth, bringing sentient beings to salvation. （photo by Vincent Chang）

The term Lohan is widely used as a term of address for monks. （photo by Arthur Cheng）