What's the connection between Lungshan culture, which in archaeological categorization is part of the neolithic age, and the Hsia dynasty, mentioned in ancient documents? This is a question that interests quite a lot of people.

From existing data, there is already some overlap between the culture of the late Lungshan period and that of the Hsia. Unfortunately, existing archaeological evidence tells us far less about the Hsia than about Lungshan culture.

From primitive life to learning to the development of civilization, Lungshan culture gradually grew into Hsia civilization. Looking back at life in the Lungsha era, it is perhaps possible to get an inkling of Hsia civilization.

The people of this era carried on the agriculture begun during the Yangshao period. The main crops were millet, wheat, and rice. Evidently the climate in the Yellow River basin was at that time warmer than it is now.

The main harvesting tools included stone sickles, stone knives, and stone shovels. Compared to the earlier Yangshao era, manufacture of stone implements by striking had given way to manufacture by grinding. Some of the more special items include jade axes with carefully and skilfully done animal face designs.

Such exquisite jade work has been interpreted as "serving as a ritual implement, for use in serving the elite, so that obviously there was already a class structure at that time," argues Zhang Xuehai, director of the Shandong Institute of Archaeology.

This is a pottery kuei, a representative vessel from the Dawenkou to Lungshan cultures. It is about 4800 years old.

From matriarchal to patriarchal:

The main domestic animals raised at that time included pigs, cows, sheep, and chickens. Cows and sheep were primarily for eating, not tools of production. It was popular to use hog bones in funeral ceremonies, perhaps as a sign of wealth. Recovered items like pottery models of pig sties, carved stone pigs, and pig-shaped pottery boxes suggest that the hog was a main theme of art at that time.

Why would that be? Huang Shih-chiang, a professor of Archaeology at National Taiwan University, speculates that this is related to the fact that the hog was the most commonly seen animal of the times. Or perhaps there were religious reasons. "Isn't it still very popular to slaughter a pig at traditional festivals today?"

People had by then moved out of caves and constructed houses on flat land. They knew that before building they would have to level the land, dig holes for posts as structural supports, and build walls directly on the surface. Walls at that time already used dirt mixed with grass, or else mud, or even construction materials like lime. This type of wall construction was maintained for a long time, and it was only in the Western Han dynasty, about 2000 years ago, that brick was used for construction.

At that time people spent their whole lives residing in a single village, and were placed in a common burial ground after death. But things like the burial together of mothers and sons or collective reburial graves characteristic of the Yangshao period no longer appear, being replaced by unearthed joint graves for husband and wife.

Most mainland scholars figure that this is an important marker of the transition from a matriarchal society to a patriarchal society.

"In a matriarchal society, the husband and wife are considered not of the same clan, and are not buried together. The husband is returned to his original clan for burial after death. Thus there appeared collective reburial graves. But in a patriarchal society, male authority is ascendant, and wives and children are seen as the property of the husband, so that the husband and wife are buried together," explains Professor Huang.

How did people use these containers in the past? Specialists from the archaeological team have determined that the pot held by the woman is from the Spring and Autumn period.

The meticulous people of Lungshan:

The pottery produced at that time was highly developed. Modern techniques cannot necessarily replicate classic items from that time such as kuei or "eggshell " pottery.

Most kuei pieces are light yellow, but some are white. Their shape resembles a bird standing with head held high, but with fat legs. You can pick one up by lifting the handle, something like a water vessel. In fact, people may have used it for cooking rice or boiling water.

Most "eggshell " pieces are shaped liked cups, with the mouth as small as 0.2 or 0.3 mm. It is generally assumed they were used to store water or wine, or used for religious purposes. "When you get right down to it, Lungshan people were rather meticulous about their items," assays Wei Chengmin, director of the Chengziya Work Station.

Take for example all kinds of utensils, like ting and ko (tripodal containers), basins, tou (a plate-type object with a long glass-like stem), trays, plates, pots, zun (vessels), cups, bowls, spoons. canisters. . . . they were made in many shapes, and most had lids. There were also a variety of additions, like handles, spouts, lines, and so on. They aren't in the least inferior to the items used around a contemporary home.

From the remnants of fermentation starch found on pottery shards, it is clear that Lungshan people brewed and drank alcohol. Many vessels for drinking and storing wine have been discovered. This situation continued into the Shang dynasty, so the Chinese relationship with alcohol can be traced back to this point.

Many archaeologists believe that the existence of a drinking culture indicates that people at that time already had a surplus of food, and that "the people's livelihood and enjoyment" had already reached a certain level.

[Picture Caption]

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This is a pottery kuei, a representative vessel from the Dawenkou to Lungshan cultures. It is about 4800 years old.

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How did people use these containers in the past? Specialists from the archaeological team have determined that the pot held by the woman is from the Spring and Autumn period.

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(right) This brown pottery ting from the Lingyang River site in Shandong is about 5000 years old. The cover has a handle.

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(left) This restored black pottery ting has feet shaped like a bird's beak. Commonly called "demon-faced feet," some believe that they originate in the worship of wild beasts.

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Colored pottery has been discovered from early Lungshan culture. This is a colored and decorated tou from Dawenkou, with a very unique form.

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These restored pottery implements were cooking utensils for the ancients, with the three legged container especially well developed. This is one of the special features of Lungshan utensils.

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This black pottery gourd shaped long-stemmed glass has decorative motifs on both the rim and handle.

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An unusually shaped pottery kuei.

（left） This restored black pottery ting has feet shaped like a bird's beak. Commonly called "demon-faced feet," some believe that they originate in the worship of wild beasts.

（right） This brown pottery ting from the Lingyang River site in Shandong is about 5000 years old. The cover has a handle.

Colored pottery has been discovered from early Lungshan culture. This is a colored and decorated tou from Dawenkou, with a very unique form.

These restored pottery implements were cooking utensils for the ancients, with the three legged container especially well developed. This is one of the special features of Lungshan utensils.

This black pottery gourd shaped long-stemmed glass has decorative motifs on both the rim and handle.