No matter what corner of the world you might be in, this series of articles about flowers will accompany you in appreciating the changing seasons, soothing the longing for home to allow the enjoyment of the coming blossoms and butterflies.
"I may not have a mansion, I haven't any land, not even a paper dollar to crinkle in my hand; but I can show you morning, on a thousand hills, and kiss you and give you seven daffodils." Such lyrics by the folk group The Brothers Four must have brought great warmth to countless out-of-pocket young lovers.
The promise of a golden spring
When you have been through a harsh northern winter you can really appreciate the emotions stirred up by the sight of golden daffodils under the sun. The winter days are short and the nights are long, the trees are bare and the grass is pale and withered. Then one day you go out into the frozen garden and see snowdrops poking up like hanging bells, to be followed by banks of pink and yellow crocuses.
But these delicate little flowers still find it hard to stand up to the frost and snow, and after their initial surprise flourish they disappear again, just adding to the frustration. It is only when you go to the countryside and see the golden daffodils encircling the old trees and fluttering in the breeze that you really know that heaven has kept its promise of spring.
The best expression of this feeling must be that found in the poetry of William Wordsworth. Retreating to England's Lake District at the end of the 18th century, one day he was returning home from a walk as usual, when he suddenly came across thousands of golden daffodils dancing in the breeze, "Continuous as the stars that shine/ And twinkle on the milky way." This beautiful experience was to become known the world over through his poem "I wandered lonely as a cloud," and today endless streams of vehicles "wander lonely" to the Lake District in search of the blossoms.
Originally the youth by the water
Growing in the tranquillity of the water's edge, golden daffodils originally came from the Mediterranean coast and were admired in Europe a thousand years before the birth of Christ. They have been named "Narcissus," from the Greek myth of the beautiful young man who was transfixed by his reflection in the water until he died. This image of envious beauty has penetrated deep into people's hearts.
Narcissus in China
Wordsworth's golden daffodils were actually only one of the members of the splendid Narcissus family. In 1908 Britain's Royal Horticultural Society began to categorize daffodils, and since the 1950s it has been the International Registration Authority for the genus. According to its system of classification, there are twelve categories containing a total of more than 7000 different varieties. Amongst these, the first division consists of "Trumpet Daffodils" which have one bloom per stem, a large trumpet, no fragrance and a golden color. The eighth category, the "Tazetta Daffodils," with white petals, a yellow cup and more than one bloom to each stem, includes the Chinese narcissus, the type of daffodil known in China. The flowers are comparatively small and have a delicate fragrance.
Some people think that the Chinese narcissus came East from the Mediterranean during the Tang dynasty. Others say that it was already used for ornamental purposes earlier in China, during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, and that it originated in southern China. No matter what the answer is, they are all narcissi from the same family. But for the Chinese they have very different associations.
Philosopher Cheng Chao-hsiung once explained that the "foreign" representation of Narcissus as the daffodil symbolizes a kind of "mystification and ignorance." It is "the sign of the technicolor machine society of the present century that is entranced by its own image." As for Chinese daffodils, these represent "establishing rectitude from chaos," the mark of purity and virtue, a clear awareness that "symbolizes the spirit of the thoughtfulness and calmness of the universe." As usual, East and West are quite different and it turns out that Narcissus is really a descendant of the Yellow Emperor!
Heavenly garlic in an expensive bowl
Before the Tang dynasty, the attitude of the Chinese towards the narcissus was actually quite straightforward. According to the scholarship of the Ming dynasty "yuppie" Wen Zhenheng, it was called "elegant garlic" by the people of the Six Dynasties period. The Nanyang Poetry Anthology says that narcissi originally grew in mountain valleys and were called "heavenly onions." The Flower History records that the Tang Emperor Xuanzong once bestowed twelve bowls of narcissi on his concubine the Lady of Guo, each one made out of precious metals and stones.
This reminds one of when the Dutch imported tulips from Turkey in the 17th century. Not only was each flower extremely expensive, but they were also displayed in Chinese blue and white porcelain. The prized flowers that came over land from Central Asia were put with ornaments that came over sea from the East. Whether this was beautiful is one thing-it was certainly expensive. If you take a treasure from the National Palace Museum, such as a subtle narcissus bowl of Ru porcelain, as a standard of taste, it must be admitted that Xuanzong's jewel-encrusted bowls were somewhat ostentatious, and that even the blue and white ware made for the foreign barbarians was rather more elegant.
It is said that in popular belief the Chinese narcissus, with its white petals and yellow cup, not only represents harmony of yin and yang and good fortune, but its likeness to a gold cup on a silver stand has always made it a symbol of wealth too. Who can say that it was not appropriate for the Tang emperor to use bowls made of precious metals and gems with their matching flowers of good omen as a gift for his beloved beauty?
Perhaps the people of the Song dynasty several hundred years later would not agree -especially the super-connoisseurs of the Southern Song. For them, the daffodil culture of pure and simple porcelain, such as Ru ware, had arrived.
Thus the Song poet Yang Wanli thought the view of the narcissus as a gold wine cup and silver stand was unbearably crude and sullied the "spirit of the water," as the flower's Chinese name shuixian means. The Chinese narcissus' graceful poise in the water inspired Yang to call it his "guest who floats on the waves." For him, the light yellow and pale white double-flowered "Delicate Jade" daffodil represented the true narcissus.
Disdain for the world and for glamor
Whereas the Tang emperor bestowed daffodils on his ladies, after the Song the flowers came to be exchanged as gifts between gentleman literati. A poem by Huang Tingjian mentions how "Wang Chongdao gave fifty narcissi," and Yang Wanli writes: "I planted 'floating guests' with my hands, and this year harvested thirty bushels. My study has become a rich kingdom of daffodils." Such words bear witness to how by this time cultivation of narcissi "could be seen everywhere in southern China."
Although no longer rare and exotic, the status of the narcissus for the Chinese was not diminished by its abundance. In a culture that loves to compare flowers with virtue, the cold-natured narcissus with its elegant color and subtle fragrance, when complemented with white rocks, is like a star from the Milky Way caught in a bowl. It is also sometimes likened to a meteor fallen to earth, or to the great Chu poet, Qu Yuan, who described himself as the only one sober when the world was drunk. Qu, who drowned himself, is known as the male flower-spirit of the narcissus.
The head of the Chinese narcissus is charmingly delicate, with great poise. Standing in clear water it really is like a floating fairy. It has been likened to the wives of the ancient Emperor Shun, who threw themselves into a river out of love for him. It was written about by the sentimental poet Cao Zhi, who yearned unre-quitedly for the goddess of the River Luo-the narcissus' female flower-spirit. Because of this, the character of the narcissus in traditional teaching about flowers is ranked highest, along with the orchid, and it is said to be the most suitable choice of flower to place in one's study.
An elegant companion under the moon
"Many thanks for sympathizing with my loneliness, and bringing such an elegant companion to this old man on the mountain." Think of the lonely scholar who has spent days on end reading in his study, when suddenly somebody gives him some daffodils. He cannot avoid being moved in appreciating them and writing something for them. A poem when they open, one when adding water to their bowl, another verse in the cold evening when their petals fall. If a friend should visit when the daffodils are open then some wine is called for. After all, you cannot admire a flower with sober eyes!
A flower is indeed most beautiful when seen through drunken eyes. If the cool-fleshed, jade-boned narcissus is also appreciated under the bright and frosty moon, it is even more stimulating. In the depth of the night when the dew is heavy and your eyes are intoxicated, you do not know when the guest has departed, but the flower's shape in the lamplight offers yet another way to appreciate its beauty.
For the ancients, having good wine with a friend under the moon was the only way to appreciate flowers. The feelings that this aroused could not be done justice by reciting poems alone. Music and painting in the flowers' honor were called for, especially when winter was almost gone and spring was approaching. This is when the literati would often join together to produce auspicious "new year pictures."
In the National Palace Museum there is just such a picture from the Qing dynasty by Yun Shouping, Wang Zhai and others. From its inscription we can imagine a fine winter's day in 1680 with these gentlemen literati gathered together. In the deep of the night, afraid the flowers might go to sleep, they light lamps in copper bowls. They paint narcissi and pine branches, or arrange camellia and bamboo. Some entertain and some just appreciate. In this way they wait under the lamp for spring's arrival, brought together in friendship by the blossoms.
Nothing revealed until the flower opens
With this culture of appreciating flowers, spring is just the right time to prepare daffodils. Because the Chinese narcissus likes the cold, Zhangzhou in Fujian Province has a history of over 500 years of cultivation and is China's largest exporter of daffodils. Taiwan has seen small-scale cultivation in the past, but the climate is not right and bulbs are mainly imported. Usually, as soon as December arrives, these can be seen in most flower markets.
What is particularly interesting is that before they sprout, the bulbs of the Delicate Jade variety, with its double layers of petals, are indistinguishable from those of the single-flowered variety with a gold corona and silver petals. You can only rely on their lineage when you buy them. The fact that you only know the truth when the flowers open, though, only increases the fascination of daffodils.
Traditionally the Chinese have liked to raise narcissi in bowls of water, with white or colored stones to enhance the fantasy of dancing on the waves and walking under the moon, while also fixing the bulb in place.
Huang Yung-chuan, deputy director of the National History Museum, has spent many years researching the traditional Chinese art of flowers. The Chinese narcissus, he says, is considered to have a quiet, tranquil character with discreet colors. Using a dark-colored, heavy bronze vessel provides a good contrast with the color of the flower and provides a classical feeling. Ceramics such as green Ru ware or Yixing pottery are also suitable. The gardener Li Ke, who has been appreciating daffodils for many years, says that novices should not be afraid to use glass because this allows you to see the whole growth process from the roots developing, to the growth of the leaves and flowers.
Gold cup and silver stand
Aside from growing in water, narcissi can also be planted in well drained sandy earth. Water them regularly though. Preferably plant them outside and bring them indoors for appreciation when the flowers have opened. In the New Year paintings of the Ming and Qing dynasties you can see how the Chinese narcissi in their bowls are arranged with other flowers and vases in a group, creating tranquillity amongst gaiety. It is also a folk custom to tie red string or paper around the stems, and to complement them with ruyi scepters and persimmons (symbolizing good fortune) for the Spring Festival.
From December to the Spring Festival the shops also supply cut narcissus flowers for arrangement, providing an alternative way to appreciate them for those who do not have the patience to wait for them to open.
Huang Yen-chueh, editor of the Chinese Floral Art Foundation's magazine Hua Yi, says that people in Taiwan are also quite familiar with the Japanese way with flowers, in which the blossoms and leaves are extracted for rearrangement. But the Chinese tradition favors nature.
In Chinese flower arranging, daffodils can be placed in a vase or mounted on a spiked frame in a variety of vessels. Daffodils on their own are suitable for the study. For large rooms and festivals, other species can be selected so long as they do not overpower the main flower, such as camellia and winter blooming plum. The Ming-dynasty flower arranger Yuan Hongdao called these three "the flower kingdom's three friends of winter." When the pale narcissus is accompanied by red berries, this is popularly called "matching luck and good fortune." To emphasize that one is not afraid of making money, gold-painted branches can even be added. In recent years the importation of golden daffodils from the West has also provided festive floral materials.
No matter how the flowers are cultivated and arranged, what is most important is to change their water and to place them in a well ventilated position. Wen Zhengheng in his Book of Superfluities also reminds us that narcissi will wilt if they come into contact with smoke, so they are not suited to the widespread practice of burning incense alongside flowers.
Carving narcissi
There is one more specialty that has to be mentioned in the Chinese narcissus tradition: narcissus sculpture.
Because the bulbs of Chinese daffodils are especially large, containing a lot of nutrition, an art of carving them has been developed. The principle is to cut out some of the bulb to allow the growth of the plant to be controlled, dispensing with unwanted leaves and buds. Removing a piece of the bulb reduces the nutrition available, shortens the leaves and brings an early blossom. Experienced artists can even get the plant to grow in various distorted shapes, such as peacocks, elephants or even teapots.
It is said that many wealthy families in southern China at one time or another tried their hand at narcissus sculpture, intending to make New Year gifts to present to the emperor. But it is so time consuming and labor intensive, and good results so hard to achieve, that it did not become widespread. There are, though, experts in Taipei's Chienkuo Flower Market who display their products around the Spring Festival and at times invite a master of their craft to come over from Zhangzhou, which is irresistible for the curious.
Who are the real flower lovers?
In ancient times daffodil bulbs were used as a drug in the West to treat epilepsy and hysteria, and the medicinal use of daffodil bulbs was also recorded in Ming-dynasty texts. The Western name, "narcissus," has its root in the Greek term "narke" which is also the root of the English "narcotic." The name is thus probably a reference to a toxic paralyzing alkaloid contained within daffodil bulbs.
There is a story that, at the end of the 17th century, the English writer Addison was sheltering from the rain while out on a walk and was invited into a garden where the owner had a craze for tulips. A muddle-headed servant took some bulbs to cook up a bowl of "onion soup." Never mind the fact that she wasted *1000 worth of tulip bulbs-it was just lucky that the owner was not a lover of daffodils!
Of course, this literary master was not impressed by this fanaticism for rarity. For him, good fortune was to be able to capture spring in the countryside within his own garden, just like gardeners who can capture its secret in their greenhouses through their constant attention. He could proudly claim that there was not one plant within a mile of himself that he did not know all about, and he was deeply affected when even his neighbor's daffodils or primroses wilted.
Gentle flower lover! On winter days, take good care of the elegant guest in your study, but do not neglect the great garden of the countryside. If you do go north to catch the spring, do not forget to visit the golden daffodils by the water.
Must the vitality of spring be confined in buildings? Need flower lovers rely on bronze vases and spiked stands? When out in the open, pick seven golden daffodils which still bear the morning dew. In the morning sunlight, what does it cost to put a smile as beautiful as a flower on the face of your loved one? Nothing but a little tenderness!
p.48
Chinese believe that the narcissus, decorated with gold-lacquered festoons, will bring good luck to the New Year holiday.
(photo courtesy of the Chinese Floral Art Foundation)
p.50
The Western daffodils that spread like the silver stars of the Milky Way have been praised by poets and
transformed into the symbol of eternity.
Shown here is a country estate in England.
p.51
In winter the cherry buds perch on the branches, yet unblossomed. All that is green are the tenacious pine trees. The delicate
crocus brings surprise to the cold winter in northern lands.
Shown here is a scene from Kew Gardens in London.
p.52
Narcissi arranged among
strangely-shaped stones along with lily, persimmon and lingzhi fungus symbolically spell out the message "May everything
go as you wish." This painting by
Chen Shu of a Qing-dynasty Lantern Festival flower arrangement is in
the collection of
the National Palace Museum.
p.53
In this detail of a painting celebrating the New Year by the
12th-century Song-dynasty artist Zhao Chang, one can see the
blossoms of double-flowered narcissi.
(courtesy of the National Palace Museum)
p.54
A narcissus displayed in
an Yixing ceramic vase is
suitable for the study.
The color of a narcissus is simple and elegant. It should be arranged with
other flowers of a similar hue,
such as camellias, so that the
narcissus is not overpowered.
Decorating white narcissi with red coral
is called a "yin-and-yang match"
or an "auspicious match"-
a sign of good fortune.
(photos above all courtesy of
the Chinese Floral Art Foundation)
p.55
The daffodil is calm and reposed, emitting a light fragrance in
the corner of the house.
In this detail of a painting celebrating the New Year by the 12th-century Song-dynasty artist Zhao Chang, one can see the blossoms of double-flowered narcissi. （courtesy of the National Palace Museum）
A narcissus displayed in an Yixing ceramic vase is suitable for the study.
Decorating white narcissi with red coral is called a "yin-and-yang match" or an "auspicious match"--a sign of good fortune.
The color of a narcissus is simple and elegant. It should be arranged with other flowers of a similar hue, such as camellias, so that the narcissus is not overpowered. （photos above all courtesy of the Chinese Floral Art Foundation）
The daffodil is calm and reposed, emitting a light fragrance in the corner of the house.
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