Taiwanese folk opera is the only type of traditional drama genuinely native to the shores of Taiwan, and what these elderly artistes are performing is its earliest and most primitive form. Here there are no such things as definitive editions of drama texts, fine makeup and costumes or splendid sets. But charming melodies, tricky songs and a range of lively movements stemming from grassroots folk traditions abound.

The cradle of Taiwanese folk opera is the region of Ilan, a fertile plain near Taiwan's northeast coast. One hundred years ago the Ch'ing dynasty poet Hsiao Chu-yu described the local scene in the following words: "On the endless river old men cast their nets, in the distance stand the homes of hunters, and strolling singers answer one another's ditties." Perhaps the ditties being swopped by those strolling singers were the cradle from which Taiwanese folk opera came into being.

In those days popular drama not just in Ilan but all over Taiwan was almost completely dominated by the ssu-p'ing and luan-t'an styles of Peikuan music. But the performance style of Peikuan drama, with its inclusion of Mandarin dialogue, must have been very hard for old country folk to understand who were more accustomed to spending all day tilling the fields with a hoe. How much better to have a kind of folk opera that was accessible to illiterate farmers and uneducated peasants!

Eventually people strung together some of the popular songs existing in the countryside, blending them in with plots from vernacular fiction and song-texts and inserting a few charming stage steps and movements derived from ch'e-ku and ts'ai-ch'a drama. The result was a new type of folk drama with a strong element of local color and the main emphasis on singing.

In contrast to the later improved forms of Taiwanese folk opera, the primitive genre is genuinely local. Its roots truly lie embedded in the valley of the Lanyang River that runs through the Ilan Plain.

Once Taiwanese folk opera became popular in the area, a large number of troupes made up of amateur singers were organized by different towns and villages. Professional troupes also sprang up in various places all over Taiwan province. As was only to be expected, the more polished and refined professional troupes in due course took over from the local folk troupes. But local troupes were still formed by villagers with a liking for music and song. Their more undemanding style of performance was never intended for the stage, still less to make a living by, and they did not clash with the professional troupes as they were always loyally supported by local audiences.

Everything about the staging and costume of these rough and ready amateur performances is simple in the extreme. The musical instruments they play on include the fiddle, the round lute, the flute, the four-stringed lute and a range of simple percussion instruments.

Only the female lead wears an elaborate costume, which includes a wig, pearl hairpins, a gorgeous gown, long white stockings and white cloth slippers. The rest of the cast appear on stage wearing their normal everyday clothes. When the Japanese police moved in to arrest folk opera performers during Taiwan's period under Japanese colonial rule, when such performances were outlawed, they always went straight for the female lead. "He was always the most conspicuously dressed member of the cast, and so made a clear target. Also, his pearly headdress was the most valuable item of stage property belonging to any troupe, so once that was confiscated it meant no further performances could be given until the troupe had duly paid off their fine and recovered it again." So Yeh Tsan-sheng sums up the important responsibility borne by the man playing the leading female role.

Despite the simplicity of their costumes, the cast are nevertheless perfectly clear about their actions on stage. Whether playing male or female roles, all the actors must adjust their hair and set their hats straight with conventional theatrical gestures, and perambulate the stage in rapid, smooth steps until the music stops, when they must all find their correct places. Every character carries a fan, and during musical interludes it is used for carrying out a wide range of gestures. Throwing coy glances is a specialty of the female roles. "When your glance follows where you are pointing, the pulse of emotion sweeps the audience along with you; you give a slight smile with just the corner of your mouth, together with a sweep of your fan, and the audience follows you all the way." Ch'en Wang-ts'ung gives a demonstration on the spot, and despite his 65 years and his wrinkled face every hand gesture and movement of the feet overflows with feminine allure. You can imagine how charming he must have looked in costume in his youth. No wonder that drama students at National Taiwan University, where he was invited to perform, ribbed their female fellow students that compared to Ch'en Wang-ts'ung they were only "halfway there."

Taiwanese folk opera is sung in the vernacular and is easy for the local community to understand. Its affecting stories of lovelorn suffering proved immensely appealing to farmers and fishermen whose simple lives otherwise offered little opportunity for leisure or recreational pastimes. During the Japanese colonial period almost every village and hamlet had its own folk opera troupe, conventionally named after the place where it was based. Even under the ban on Chinese folk opera that was imposed by the Japanese authorities in 1937, the simple requirements of these troupes allowed them to carry on performing in the countryside as enthusiastically as before.

Villagers would secretly ask singers and musicians to teach them the repertoire, and once the day's work in the fields was over the farmers would settle down behind closed doors for an evening of folk opera. When opportunity arose, performances would be staged by the seashore, on riverbanks or out in the fields. These moments of pleasure amid the hardships of life under the Japanese were a great spiritual comfort to the people of Taiwan, and still provide a host of memorable stories about that period.

For example, one troupe performing in Taipei county caused such a stir that the appreciative audience kept pleading for more, constantly letting off firecrackers and offering the cast monetary rewards. The only way the troupe could respond was by continuing their performance, and in the end the audience wouldn't let them stop until 8 o'clock the next morning, when the womenfolk suddenly realised they had to rush off and see to breakfast!

Another time when the Chuang San troupe appeared at a small fishing village in Kungliao district where the stage was set up by the shore, the womenfolk watched the performance in the pouring rain, standing under umbrellas and heedless of their soaking wet clothes. After six nights in a row the audience were still pleading for more, so the troupe packed up their bags in the dead of night and cleared off without bidding anyone good-bye.

After 1945 there was a revival of Chinese folk opera generally. The old Chuang San troupe took on a new identity as the Liang Yueh troupe, and adopted an expanded repertoire. But the days of old-style Taiwanese folk opera were numbered. With a rapidly changing social environment the old amateur troupes found it impossible to compete with professional opera companies backed by big money and starring pretty young female singers. The Liang Yueh troupe was officially disbanded in 1953.

In the public parks of Ilan, whenever the weather permits, you will always find knots of elderly folks under the trees playing the Chinese fiddle and striking the wooden clappers. Some sing folk opera melodies into a microphone, while others alongside gently nod their heads to the rhythm. Some of them are former folk opera artistes, others used to be in the audience, and all of them are getting on in years.

At the performances marking the recent opening of Ilan's Folk Opera Museum the audience were mostly white-haired elderly folks, and the singers on stage were scarcely able to conceal their wrinkles under layers of heavy makeup. Taiwan's old folk opera really is entering its sunset years. . . .

[Picture Caption]

For all their popularity during the Japanese colonial period, who but their elderly fans appreciates the old folk opera artistes who sing to a simple four-stringed lute?

In old Taiwanese folk opera, only the female lead wears make-up and costume. Award-winning opera singer Ch'en Wang-ts'ung, a player of female roles who has only just had an eye operation, steps straight into the part of an old-world lady.

The unassuming air of Taiwanese folk opera is typified by its simple props and costumes, with the male lead just holding a fan and dressed in an everyday set of clothes.

When freshly made up Li Kuo-chih poses alongside his wife, it's really hard to tell which is the more charming female!

The female lead's pearl headdress and costume are an opera troupe's most valuable belongings. Once the Japanese colonial police arrested the actor playing the female lead it was curtains for the troupe's performance.

A genuine performance of primitive Taiwanese folk opera is rare enough, but an even greater treat is to see the old singer Yeh Tsan-shen (standing second from left) back on stage after his car accident.

These old interpreters of the wonderful fantasy world of Taiwanese folk opera may sadly belong as cultural exhibits in a living museum only.

Summary of the Development of Taiwanese Folk Opera

Handwritten folk opera texts preserve many an old story of village life as well as recording the words of the songs.

In old Taiwanese folk opera, only the female lead wears make-up and costume. Award-winning opera singer Ch'en Wang-ts'ung, a player of female roles who has only just had an eye operation, steps straight into the part of an old-world lady.

In old Taiwanese folk opera, only the female lead wears make-up and costume. Award-winning opera singer Ch'en Wang-ts'ung, a player of female roles who has only just had an eye operation, steps straight into the part of an old-world lady.

The unassuming air of Taiwanese folk opera is typified by its simple props and costumes, with the male lead just holding a fan and dressed in an everyday set of clothes.

The unassuming air of Taiwanese folk opera is typified by its simple props and costumes, with the male lead just holding a fan and dressed in an everyday set of clothes.

When freshly made up Li Kuo-chih poses alongside his wife, it's really hard to tell which is the more charming female!

The female lead's pearl headdress and costume are an opera troupe's most valuable belongings. Once the Japanese colonial police arrested the actor playing the female lead it was curtains for the troupe's performance.

The female lead's pearl headdress and costume are an opera troupe's most valuable belongings. Once the Japanese colonial police arrested the actor playing the female lead it was curtains for the troupe's performance.

The female lead's pearl headdress and costume are an opera troupe's most valuable belongings. Once the Japanese colonial police arrested the actor playing the female lead it was curtains for the troupe's performance.

A genuine performance of primitive Taiwanese folk opera is rare enough, but an even greater treat is to see the old singer Yeh Tsan-shen （standing second from left） back on stage after his car accident.

These old interpreters of the wonderful fantasy world of Taiwanese folk opera may sadly belong as cultural exhibits in a living museum only.

Summary of the Development of Taiwanese Folk Opera.

Handwritten folk opera texts preserve many an old story of village life as well as recording the words of the songs.