At an archaeological dig in Puli Rural Township in central Taiwan, amidst the land that looks oddly like chopped-up tofu, the face of the Puli people of 2000 years ago is gradually being unmasked. They loved jade, enjoyed jewelry, and interacted with the people of eastern Taiwan across the Central Mountain Range. The site could provide important clues to explain the movement of the world's Austronesian peoples.

It may be the middle of spring on the calendar, but Puli in mid-March is as scorching as the height of summer.

This day is the last of the trial dig at the Tamalin archaeological site at the Puli High School. Li Teh-jen and Hsu Pei-ching, research assistants from the Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica, are busy completing their main task of measuring, mapping, and photographing the site. They look very busy as they calculate, photograph, and sketch.

Professor Liu Yi-chang, in charge of the project, arrives in the late afternoon. "Where's the problem?" Rushing to the site, he doesn't even take time for a drink of water; his first sentence is this question posed to the assistants. Hsu Pei-ching hurries over to lead him to the dig, where she points to a stone slab in with the soil. "I didn't dare to move this, I was afraid it might be a stone coffin," she explains.

Liu lithely jumps into the deep hole for a closer look. "It is indeed a sarcophagus, no mistake about it." He points to a stone slab resting on a layer of dirt and declares, "Up front is a cover, it's already fallen off. This coffin is extremely small. It's very possible that it was for a child."

War in remote Puli?

Over the half month of the test dig at Tamalin in Puli, searchers discovered holes for house pillars as well as implements for daily use. These are evidence that this was perhaps a settlement in ancient times, what a modern urbanite might call "a residential district." Now that a sarcophagus has been found, does this mean those people buried their dead in, or very near, their homes?

"It's hard to say. It may be that only close relatives were buried in the home, while 'evil spirits' [such as those killed in war] might have been buried farther away from dwellings," posits Liu. He adds, "Modern people always feel that people from the distant past were 'uncivilized.' In fact, in terms of life rituals, it may very well be that they were more rigorous and clear-cut than moderns." The custom of burial in the house has been found at other archeological digs, including the Peinan site in eastern Taiwan, and has been retained by some of Taiwan's indigenous peoples (such as the Paiwan) down to modern times.

In half a month of digging, the biggest haul was of stone implements; there are late neolithic axes, shovels, and adzes made from flaked stone. "These are quite rare at sites in central Taiwan," says Liu. Perhaps this is because little was understood of these "crude" tools in the past, and so they may have been overlooked in previous digs. The discovery of a complete set of such artifacts today will definitely be helpful in giving some understanding of "what these people did and how they lived."

"Archaeological sites in Taiwan have flaked tools like these from the paleolithic to the late neolithic eras," notes Liu. From the standards of craftsmanship in their jade and decorative jewelry, it is clear that these people of ancient times were not without skill. However, it appears that as far as implements for daily use are concerned, their attitude may well have been "it's enough if it's usable."

The main finds in the dig are neolithic era axes, shovels, knives, arrowheads, spearheads, and grindstones for sharpening edges. "The great majority of these can be used as weapons. It's possible that these provide evidence to support the inference of the scholar Richard Stamps that there was an outside threat to the Puli area between 2400 and 1700 years ago, and perhaps even war," says Liu.

A branch of the late neolithic

Flip through an archaeological map of Taiwan and explore the mystery of the origins of human life on Taiwan. In 1969 the archeologist Sung Wen-hsun discovered a paleolithic era site, dating from 5,000 to 15,000 years ago, in Changpin Rural Township in Taitung County. An even earlier find--perhaps 20-30,000 years old--was made in the 1980s in Tsuochen Rural Township in Tainan County.

The era of Changpin Culture was contemporaneous with the Shandingdong Man Culture of northern China and the later neolithic Yangshao Culture. What's different is that at that point north China already had a colored pottery culture, whereas Changpin people still used stone implements and remained in the paleolithic era.

After Changpin Culture, roughly 7000 years ago, neolithic culture appeared in Taiwan in the form of Tapenkeng Culture, traces of which have been found in Taipei, Tainan, and Kaohsiung. Interestingly, the patterns on shards from the pottery of this culture are extremely similar to patterns on pottery found in mainland China's Jiangxi-Guangxi belt. Archaeologist Chang Kuang-chih argues that Tapenkeng Culture may have been an old culture spread widely in southeast coastal China. It may have been one of the two agricultural cultures that developed in parallel in China at that time, the other being the familiar Yangshao Culture which is mainly distributed around the midstream portions of the Yellow River. But does Tapenkeng Culture belong to Austronesian peoples, or some other group? Because there have been few archaeological finds in southern China, and only a limited number of artifacts have been unearthed at Taiwan's Tapenkeng, it is still hard to answer this question.

Tapenkeng Culture disappeared as of about 4,500 years ago. It was replaced, or succeeded, by a number of individually developing cultures. These include Chihshan'an and Yuanshan cultures in the north, Niumatou and Yingpu in central Taiwan, Peinan and Chilin on the east coast, and Tahu and Niuchoutzu in the south. The Tamalin Culture being unearthed at the Puli site belongs to this era, and is a branch of its own.

Sung Wen-hsun believes that the appearance of different cultural systems in various places in Taiwan in the late neolithic era "may be related to differences in routes followed by Austronesian peoples." He says by way of analogy: "It is perhaps just as the Han Chinese who came to Taiwan later on retained the distinction between Fujianese and Hakka. The Fujianese and Hakkas came to Taiwan at different times, and followed different routes." Perhaps the fact that different cultures have been unearthed at late neolithic sites in Taiwan is due to similar causes.

From evidence including pottery patterns, burial customs, and similarities in language between Taiwan's aboriginal peoples and peoples of Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands, it has long been believed that a close connection existed between the Austronesian peoples and the first humans on Taiwan--especially from the late neolithic until Han Chinese migrated to the island. But where did the Austronesian people come from? Archaeologists still have no definitive answer. Some say southern China, others say the Indochina Peninsula. In the last decade or so a theory has become popular among archaeologists and linguists that this group originated in Taiwan, moving out toward the south and east. Ultimately they made it as far east as Easter Island, and as far south as New Zealand (see the map "Spread of Austronesian Peoples").

If Taiwan is the place of origin of the Austro-nesian peoples, what would be the connection to the various neolithic era sites found on the island? Was there some kind of interaction? These questions await further exploration by scholars.

Interactions with people in the east?

Whatever the case may be, it is clear that the Tamalin site is one of the various branches among the different cultures of the late neolithic. "From the contents of the culture, it appears to be closest to the Yingpu Culture of central Taiwan," wrote Liu Yi-chang in his 1987 report on Tamalin. The Yingpu ruins, located in Tatu Rural Township of Taichung County, was one of the prehistoric sites excavated during cooperative work between National Taiwan University and Yale University back in the 1960s. Looking at the black three-legged pottery uncovered there, many scholars at the time pointed to "similar elements with the culture of northern China." But other scholars argued that it was hard to say exactly whether or not the objects found really were the same type of three-legged pottery. Meanwhile, from the imprints of rice kernels found at the Yingpu site, some scholars posited that "there was a certain degree of interaction with the culture of southern China."

The special features of Yingpu Culture include the following: Most of the pottery uncovered is earthen grey-black pottery. The main shapes include jars, bowls, basins, jugs, and dou; some pieces have circular bases, others have feet. Some of the pottery has covers and/or handles, and there are a variety of decorative techniques. Some pieces have simple touches of color, mostly straight or cross-hatched lines. The pottery found at Tamalin does not differ in type from the Yingpu artifacts.

The similarity in pottery suggests close relations between the peoples of Tamalin and Yingpu, with the culture starting in Yingpu and moving westward to Tamalin. However, many things have also been discovered at the Tamalin site--especially stone coffins and a great number of pots with bridge-shaped handles--that are rare in digs in western Taiwan. On the other hand, such artifacts have been found in ruins in eastern Taiwan, such as the Peinan Culture site. It seems, then, that there was interaction between the two regions--which are divided by high peaks--at that time. "Maybe it was not such a big deal for prehistoric peoples to cross the Central Mountain Range!" offers Sung Wen-hsun.

The 2000 year-old Puli man

Based on his previous research work and on the finds at the ongoing test dig, Liu Yi-chang can offer a general description of the first Puli-ites--"Tamalin Man"--living 2400-1700 years ago. They were a late neolithic people who used flaked stone tools. From the large number of hitching stones and animal jawbones it can be inferred that they knew fishing and agriculture. Though no human or fish bones have been found at the site, this may because they have decayed away in the highly acidic soil. The stone arrowheads suggest that the Tamalin people engaged in hunting and even war.

In terms of lifestyle, they had a strict social organization. Their settlement was very large, and the burial patterns (e.g. the direction in which the coffins are set) are regular and orderly. During the test dig, traces were found of holes for pillars for house frames. In some places the cultural level is flat and even, without artifacts. "The dirt has been tramped down firmly and evenly, as if a large number of people walked over it," says Liu, suspecting that such places may have been areas of collective activities for Tamalin Man.

The test dig also uncovered a "Shuiwaku Period" culture stratum of an even earlier date than Tamalin, as well as many late Qing dynasty porcelain shards (thought to be artifacts left by Pingpu aborigines during the Daoguang era of the Qing dynasty, 170 years ago). Thus, in the Tamalin site at the Puli High School there is evidence that this place was occupied by people in the Shuiwaku period (3600-2400 years ago), and the Tamalin period (2400-1700), and by Pingpu indigenous people. In other words, at least three distinct groups of people lived at the Puli site at different times.

Jade lovers?

In addition, and more worthy of attention, a number of jade pendants and other decorative objects made from "Taiwan soft jade" have been found at Tamalin. A large amount of jade craft waste material has also been found. This situation resembles that uncovered in Wanjung Rural Township in Hualien, which is known as a "jade handicraft site" of prehistoric people.

However, there are larger artifacts of finished products and waste materials at the Hualien site, which is closer to the source of the jade, whereas everything at Tamalin is smaller.

Liu Yi-chang points out that, based on what has been unearthed, Taiwan's prehistoric people must have been aficionados of jade. He says that "you can find crafted jade at virtually any ruins" from 3500 years ago. There may even have been a jade exchange network. "The closer a place is to the source of the jade and to the peoples who controlled it, the more likely that place saw the trading of jade." From the large amount of cut semi-finished items and waste jade found at Tamalin, it is very possible that Tamalin was an exchange point for jade between eastern and western Taiwan.

"It is possible people from eastern Taiwan came here with jade to trade, or that people from here went east to purchase jade which they then brought back for crafting, or that people from both east and west met here," avers Liu.

Landlocking the Austronesians

Liu believes that Puli may have then played a role similar to that in modern times--as "an intermediary point where the plains meet the mountains." Based on previous archaeological discoveries, it is likely that before 3700 years ago all of Taiwan's humans resided on the coastal plains, and only later did they begin to move into the mountains. Why did they move? "Maybe because of changes in the environment, maybe because of population increase. . . we still need a lot more information," states Liu.

In any case, there are many sites that tell the same story--these include places along the Tatu, Wu, and Nankang rivers to the Mei River in central Taiwan; from the Hsiamatsuo site in Wujih Rural Township and the Yingpu site in Tatu Rural Township (both in Taichung County) to the Tsaohsiehtun, Chungyuan, and Pinglin sites in Tsaotun Township of Nantou County; and right through the most recent finds at Tamalin and at Chuping in Jenai Rural Township. And the story they tell is that these prehistoric peoples who must originally have been highly skilled navigators were fully "landlocked." They gradually changed their culture as they moved into the higher altitudes, until they forgot the life of the sea. "For example," says Liu, "today there is not even any maritime terminology in the Atayal language!"

"The exploration of the site at Tamalin is not only significant for finding an answer to the question of who the first Puli people were. It is even more important for finding an answer to the origins of the more than 200 million Austronesian people alive today," explains Liu.

Missing pieces of the puzzle

Of which peoples now living in the Puli basin were the Tamalin people the ancestors? What is the relationship to other finds at nearby Chuping and Shihtunkeng? Why did Tamalin Culture disappear about 1700 years ago? Where did it go? Such fascinating questions cannot be answered right now; a lot more data has to be gathered first. "It's like a jigsaw puzzle," is the metaphor suggested by Liu Yi-chang. "Right now a lot of the pieces are missing, and the whole picture is still uncertain and is just taking shape."

"The Tamalin site is an important historical resource for the Puli area, and it is hoped that local figures in Puli will work hard to preserve this important cultural resource." This was part of the conclusion Liu wrote for the preliminary report on the test dig. Thus, at the urging of experts, beginning in early April, a full-scale "rescue dig" was launched at the original site. The project is still under way. The resulting finds have been even more impressive than were those of the test dig; as of the end of April, seven sarcophagi have been discovered.

Though mute, these historical materials speak to us by their very presence. It looks like Tamalin Culture still has many stories to tell.

A stone spinning wheel used by Tamalin people to make cloth.

Color decoration is visible on this patterned potsherd.

A round stone knife; a string could be threaded through the holes for easy carrying.

Spread of Austronesian Peoples Source: Scientific American （July,1991）: pp.90-91.

A fragment of a jade pendant.

（above） A batu held by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Hawaii. It has been confirmed that prehistoric artifacts uncovered in the east and south Pacific are closely related to items from the Taiwan of that period. （photo by Chung Yung-ho）

（above） A batu held by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Hawaii. It has been confirmed that prehistoric artifacts uncovered in the east and south Pacific are closely related to items from the Taiwan of that period. （photo by Chung Yung-ho）

（opposite page） The stone and jade pieces this man has collected were simply picked up from around his Japanese-occupation era home.