The Liutui Volunteer Militia
Taiwan saw three great insurgencies during the Qing dynasty. One of these, led by Chu Yi-kui, occurred in 1721 and led directly to the establishment of Liutui Volunteer Militia. Originally from Zhangzhou, Chu Yi-kui raised the flag of rebellion together with Tu Chun-ying in southern Taiwan. The rebels quickly captured Tainan and Chulo (modern-day Chiayi) and proclaimed Chu "Chung Hsing Wang" (i.e., "the king who will restore the Ming dynasty"), but it wasn't long before relations between Chu and Tu disintegrated into bitter internecine struggle, with Hakkas pitted against Fujianese.
To protect their homes from the ravages of war, Hakka communities (including present-day Tienneipu and Meinung) organized the Liutui Volunteer Militia, and it was this force which helped to bring an end to Chu Yi-kui's rebellion. With his Fujianese fighters pursued by Qing troops and hampered by fierce resistance from the Liutui Volunteer Militia in the township of Wantan, Chu was finally defeated in Chiayi County.
Chen Yun-tung, a Hakka from northern Taiwan, admires the fighting spirit of the Liutui militia, and laments that Hakkas of northern Taiwan lack this type of cohesiveness. The spirit of the Liutui militia has lived on, most notably in the person of Liu Yung-fu, who led fierce resistance against Japanese troops sent to take control of Taiwan after the island was ceded to Japan in 1895. Today, the Liutui spirit shows through once again in the movement to prevent the construction of Meinung reservoir from inundating a piece of Hakka culture.
After the Chu Yi-kui rebellion, the Qing official Lan Tingzhen memorialized the emperor to urge repeal of the ban against immigration from Guangdong. Soon thereafter, immigrants began pouring in from Chaozhou and Huizhou. Due to the activities of the Liutui militia and the subsequent favor showed to them by the Qing court, Taiwan's Fujianese population heaped scorn on Hakkas for siding with the officials against the rebels. Even today, Hakkas remain stereotyped as a group that fawns upon whoever happens to be in power. No matter how "trumped up" this charge may be, however, the bad name has stuck to the Hakkas like some sort of "original sin." The Hakkas have had a much tougher time establishing a place for themselves in Taiwanese society than have their Fujianese counterparts from Zhangzhou or Quanzhou. The difficulties that Hakkas face are well illustrated by the furor that blew up last year over the treatment of the spirits of the yimin militiamen in a school textbook.
The ideal of cultivating multiculturalism and encouraging respect for minorities has caught on in recent years in Taiwan. To reflect this new trend, an experimental new junior high school textbook called Getting to Know Taiwan was introduced last year, yet the complete lack of any mention of Hakka culture drew a storm of protest. The textbook committee revised the book, adding a section on the Hakka worship of the spirits of the yimin martyrs, a group of militiamen who were killed while fighting against rebels. Unfortunately, the committee breezily referred to the spirits of the yimin militiamen as a "pack of lonely ghosts and wandering demons." This uncomplimentary language elicited a second storm of protest. The textbook was revised again, and the "lonely ghosts and wandering demons" were upgraded into a group of deities personifying the ideals of loyalty and valor. In the opinion of Fan Chen-chien, the textbook incident highlighted the ignorance of the Taiwanese people concerning Hakka history and focused the spotlight on the existence of a negative bias against Hakka culture. Lonely ghosts or paragons of valor?
Who exactly were the yimin militiamen? How did their spirits come to occupy such an important place in the religious life of Taiwanese Hakkas?
In 1785, official corruption and grinding poverty sparked an uprising in Changhua Country led by Lin Shuang-wen. The fighting spread south to Chiayi and Fengshan (present-day Kaohsiung) and north to Chuchian (present-day Hsinchu), where the rebels met with resistance from local Hakka militia. Over 100 Hakka militiamen died in the fighting in Hsinchu and were buried in a mass grave. A mausoleum was erected at the site, and later the Yimin Temple ("militiamen's temple") was built there.
After Lin Shuang-wen's rebellion was put down, officials rewarded the Hakkas with an inscribed wooden memorial commending them for their help in the fight against the rebels. Thereafter, people got the mistaken idea that the yimin militia had fought to preserve Qing rule, and the Hakka community once again suffered unjust criticism as running dogs for the elite and the enemies of righteousness.
When Yimin Temple recently celebrated its 200th anniversary, Hsinchu county commissioner Lin Kuang-hua pointedly asked a county legislator why anyone should speak in praise of the yimin militiamen. Arguing that the militiamen had sided with the Qing against Chinese heroes who were trying to drive the Manchus out, the county executive asked: What's so virtuous about people like that?
The actions of the yimin militia must be viewed in their proper historical context, however. After immigration from Guang-dong was prohibited, Hakkas gradually became a disadvantaged minority in Taiwan, far outnumbered by Fujianese from Zhangzhou and Quanzhou. They had no choice but to band together to defend their homes and communities against larger ethnic rivals. In the complex and dangerous world of Taiwan during the early years of Han Chinese settlement, when rebellions such as those led by Chu Yi-kui and Lin Shuang-wen broke out, Hakka communities often came under attack. The rebels in these cases were fighting against corrupt officialdom, to be sure, but from the Hakka perspective, these disturbances simply provided other ethnic groups with an excuse to loot and pillage Hakka enclaves.
For Fan Chen-chien, the yimin militia did what it took to defend their lives, homes, and property, and to ensure the continued survival of their language and culture.
Hakkas are still criticized today for the inscribed wooden memorial with which the Qing court honored the yimin militia, yet it would behoove one to remember that the most widely revered Fujianese deity, the goddess Matzu, was shown favor over 40 times by officialdom. What is certain is that worship of the spirits of the yimin militia has provided the Hakkas of northern Taiwan with a sense of cohesiveness for more than 200 years. Every summer on the tenth day of the seventh lunar month, a village in either Taoyuan or Hsinchu county carries out a huge festival in worship of the martyred yimin militiamen. (The festival rotates among 15 different villages, with a different one doing the honors every year.) The 200th anniversary of the founding of Yimin Temple was a big event. As one account puts it: "The gods from 25 sub-temples throughout Taiwan came back to the main temple, and over 30,000 faithful flocked in." Huang Jung-luo notes that if the textbook committee had just made one simple phone call to Yimin Temple they would have found out right away that there are enough faithful followers to ensure that the spirits of the yimin militiamen will never be "a pack of lonely ghosts and wandering demons."
Fan Chen-chien sums up the significance of the worship of the yimin militiamen in the following pithy phrases: "settling in, protecting the home, self-reliance, and love of hometown." Surviving in the face of adversity
Serious ethnic strife was a fact of life in the Taiwan of centuries past for a number of reasons, including linguistic barriers, different places of origin in the mainland, disputes over water rights, and the Qing court's policy of playing off different groups of Han Chinese against each other. There were continual disputes, for example, between Fujianese settlers from Zhangzhou and Quanzhou. Each time a major uprising occurred in Taiwan, tensions between these various groupings exploded into serious armed conflict.
For the Hakkas, who gradually fell to the status of a disadvantaged minority from the 17th century onward, these conditions increased the difficulty of survival. For the modern-day historian, frequent armed conflict between organized groups in Taiwan adds an extra layer of complexity to the past. For the Hakkas of northern Taiwan, these conflicts were one factor in their migration into the mountains.
In A History of the Hakkas in Taiwan, Huang Jung-luo notes that the Hakka settler Chang Ta-chao had already opened up the northwest part of the Taichung plain by the reign of the emperor Yongzheng (1723-1735), and the Chang family's irrigated fields in Tuwu Chienchun already covered an expanse of 3,000 chia (approximately 2,900 hectares). According to a gazetteer for Changhua County: "The Changhua area is populated by two groups of settlers. One is from Fujian and the other from Guangdong. Each group recites from the classics with its own peculiar accent, and each has its own teachers. In the cities and townships alike, families everywhere hire private tutors for their children." Huang Jung-luo argues that the Hakkas were clearly the social equals of the Fujianese. New Hakka arrivals poured into Taiwan in the latter part of the Qing dynasty during the reign of the emperor Jiaqing (1796-1820) and the early part of the reign of the emperor Daoguang (1821-1850). It was not until the huge armed clash between Hakkas and Fujianese in 1826 that the influx of Hakkas declined significantly.
Japanese historian Ino Kanori writes that the armed ethnic clash of 1826 started when a Hakka stole a pig from a Fujianese. "Intense fighting raged along the borders between Hakka and Fujianese communities, and Hakkas in the Yuanlin area (Changhua County) were forced to withdraw for self-defense to Tapu Hsinchuang and the neighborhoods surrounding Kuanti Temple. Turmoil engulfed Taiwan in both the north (from the Tachia River in Taichung all the way up to the Tamsui area) and south (in the area between the Huwei River and the Chiayi County line)."
Huang Jung-luo feels that Hakkas migrated to the mountains primarily because of the 19-year period of armed conflict that began in 1826. Huang writes in his book In Search of Hakka Roots: "The Hakkas were involved in the earliest settlement of some parts of Taipei County, but after the armed clashes many of them moved south to counties like Taoyuan and Hsinchu."
The armed clashes were not always between the Fujianese and Hakkas. Over 100 armed clashes both large and small occurred between various groups in Taiwan between the early-17th and late-19th centuries. The Hakkas even fought amongst themselves over water rights. A General History of Taiwan (revised by Wu Mi-cha, a scholar at Academia Sinica's Institute of Taiwan History) notes that the groups involved in the early settlement of Taiwan recruited settlers from their own ethnic group or hometown. Any dispute over land or water tended to spark fighting between distinct social groupings. Escalation into armed conflict was often the end result. Such clashes in Taiwan occurred between Hakkas and Fujianese, and among fellow Fujianese from Zhangzhou and Quanzhou. Other rifts occurred along clan lines, and there were even armed clashes between opposing occupational guilds. Are all tea pickers Hakka?
Objective conditions prevented anyone in the past from taking a really close look at Taiwanese history, and mistaken notions abounded. It was thought, for example, that people from Quanzhou settled near the mouths of rivers because they had come from a port city; that people from Zhangzhou established farms in the plains and along the rivers a bit further inland because they had generally been farmers on the mainland; and that the Hakkas had no choice but to settle in the foothills because they did not arrive in Taiwan until later. This facile assumption that present-day demographics reflect where Hakkas lived in the early days of settlement is a gross oversimplification of the facts.
Much more research has now been done on Taiwanese history, and many erroneous ideas have been put to rest. The history of Hakka settlement in Taiwan is full of tragedy, but in the view of Chuang Ying-chang, a researcher at Academia Sinica's Institute of Ethnology, we mustn't blow particular bits of history out of proportion in an effort to emphasize the tragic nature of the past. Every period has its own unique character.
Yin Chang-yi, who has long fought to win Hakkas the right to interpret their own history, does not agree with those who say that the Hakkas migrated from the plains to the foothills of Taoyuan, Hsinchu, and Miaoli as a result of the armed strife of the 1820s, 30s, and 40s. In his opinion, such an interpretation doesn't square with the fighting spirit and courage in which the Hakkas take such great pride.
He argues that the Hakkas of Taiwan's northern plains began migrating into the foothills in 1783, and that their settlement in the hills coincides with the development of tea and camphor as major export items. Writes Professor Yin: "It was the newly discovered opportunity to make money from camphor and tea that attracted the Hakkas into the hills. This historical context explains the close correspondence between Hakka enclaves and the distribution of tea-producing areas." Yin also notes that almost all tea-picking songs in Taiwan are sung in the Hakka language, and that one almost never hears such a song being sung by anyone of Fujian extraction. "The reason so many Hakkas left the plains is not because they had 'lost in battle' to the Fujianese, but because they had been attracted by the chance to get involved in a promising new line of business."
From the vantage point of someone living in one of today's highly developed cities, the hills look like a backward place to live, and this perspective leads one to the intuitive conclusion that the Hakkas must have left the plains only because they had no other choice. Viewing this demographic shift within its proper historical context, however, sheds a different light on the issue. Water resources were seldom located in the plains; rather, they were most accessible along the middle reaches of rivers. This was a key reason why Taiwan's early Hakkas chose to live in the hills. Shih Tien-fu, a professor of geography at National Taiwan Normal University, argues that it was natural for the Hakkas to settle in the hills because they already had experience on the mainland in building terraced rice paddies. Although this line of thinking doesn't seem to apply quite so neatly to the experience of Hakka settlers in the plains of northern Taiwan, a lot of Hakkas subscribe to the views of Professor Shih. Getting to know Taiwan
The widespread misunderstanding of Hakka history is actually a reflection of ignorance about Taiwanese history in general. Hsu Cheng-kuang, director of Academia Sinica's Institute of Ethnology, explains that most research on Taiwanese history in the past was done by people interested in writing a general history of the island. What is called for today, however, is more field investigations into the history of individual towns and regions.
Beginning with the "Give back my native tongue!" movement, the Hakka community has now been working for the past ten years to achieve greater visibility in society. The most important thing about this visibility is the deepened understanding of our society and the new opportunities for cultural bridge-building that it can bring. Says Professor Yin, "It's going to take a lot more research on Hakka issues. We need to know more about Hakka history, and about the historical interaction between the Hakkas and other ethnic groups, before we can find a new path to the future." This is an effort in which everyone in Taiwan, regardless of ethnic background, must share.