Ghosts and the Chinese World View

An Interview with Li Yi-yuan, Member of Academica Sinica

Everyone knows the meaning of the word "ghost" but where did the idea come from? It can be explained in two ways. The first comes from man's concern with death. To reduce the terror of death and maintain family relations, man supposed that besides this world there is another world to come. Souls that have not yet returned to this world live in that other world--the dark world--and watch closely every move of the living. In other words, the world of ghosts is an extension of human society.

A second explanation of why people believe in ghosts comes from a supposition of E. B. Taylor's. He thinks that man's first conception of ghosts was closely related to dreams. Because people commonly dream that they go places in their dreams and that they see the dead, they suppose that man has a soul which can be separated from the body. That soul is what is meant by "ghost."

The concept of ghosts is universal, but their forms differ with each society. For the Chinese, the concept of "ghost" is inseparable from our tradition of ancestor worship. The souls of one's own ancestors are to be revered but not so the souls of others', which may become "ghosts."

Among the concepts of the Chinese people is that of a supernatural world of the "nonhuman," which in a broad sense could be called the world of ghosts. This world can be divided into three parts. The first part belongs to the gods; the second to ancestors, who are worshipped and will not harm people; and the third to ghosts, which are not worshipped and can harm people.

This calls to mind a term in the Fukienese dialect pronounced "lasam" which expresses both physical dirtiness, such as garbage, and a metaphorical dirtiness, referring to ghosts. The Mandarin phrase "this place isn't clean" is used similarly. Dirtiness represents ghosts because it implies disorder, which is harmful to man. We can now understand why "ghost" in the narrow sense signifies these departed spirits that no one cares for, that can harm people and that may even roam about looking for substitute victims to take their place.

Next, I want to point out that Chinese ghosts, by accumulating sufficient virtue, can gradually advance themselves and join the ranks of the "gods." We must first examine the differences between temples to the gods and temples to ghosts. There are scores, the most important being the following: ghosts' temples have only tablets, while the gods have only statues; silver paper is burned for ghosts, while gold is burned for gods; ghost temples have no doors, while the gods' do. Finally, incense and statues may be brought back from the gods' temples to protect oneself at home, but not from the ghosts', because no one would want to bring home anything so "ghostly."

At first, Chinese feared ghosts and asked only that they not harm people. But later, after some ghosts had helped people a little and more and more people worshipped them, some ghosts then tended toward the status of gods. This shows that although the Chinese supernatural world separates gods, ancestors and ghosts, movement between levels is possible.

From this we can also see where Western and Eastern world views differ. Christianity emphasizes that there is only one God and that man is born with original sin, which must be controlled through commandments and laws. But Chinese emphasize the cultivation of self-restraint; they think that anyone can reach the perfection of a god. As a result, there are many Chinese gods and "law" is not an important concept.

The origins of "Ghost Month" may be related to Buddhism, but its present form may also have practical factors behind it. The seventh lunar month is hot and infectious diseases are rampant. To reduce contagion, ancient sages may have used "ghosts" to keep the people from going outside. Actually the sages' actions would have been quite reasonable--literate scholars might listen to arguments about contagion but the ignorant masses would be unable to understand. The ancient Confucian philosopher Hsun Tzu once expounded a similar line of reasoning: "Gentlemen consider it the way of man; the people take it for the affairs of ghosts."

(Peter Eberly)

[Picture Caption]

When Ma Tsu, a goddess popular in Taiwan, goes on a tour, disciples set off firecrackers along the way.

Her eyes full of benevolence and mercy, Ma Tsu rescues all souls.

Her eyes full of benevolence and mercy, Ma Tsu rescues all souls.